Ancient history – WikiChoeclaiste

[80]
Aksum and ancient Ethiopia
The Kingdom of Aksum was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa centred in present-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, it existed from approximately AD 100 to 940, growing from the Iron Age proto-Aksumite period around the 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD.
In many regions the Bronze Age is generally considered to begin a few centuries prior to 3000 BC, while the end of the Iron Age varies from the early first millennium BC in some regions to the late first millennium AD in others.
Ancient history covers all continents inhabited by humans in the period 3000 BC – AD 500, ending with the expansion of Islam in late antiquity.
[81] The Kingdom of Aksum at its height by the early 6th-century AD extended through much of modern Ethiopia and across the Red Sea to Arabia.
Ancient Egypt developed over at least three and a half millennia.
[39] Later, as a nation and empire that came to control all of the Fertile Crescent, Egypt and much of Anatolia, the term “Assyria proper” referred to roughly the northern half of Mesopotamia (the southern half being Babylonia), with Nineveh as its capital.
By the end of the ancient period in AD 500, the world population is thought to have stood at 209 million.
[76]

Ancient Egyptian history is divided across various periods, beginning with the Old Kingdom, which saw pyramid building on a large scale.
During the time period of ancient history, the world population was already exponentially increasing due to the Neolithic Revolution, which was in full progress.
[38]

Assyria was originally a region on the Upper Tigris, where a small state was created in the 19th century BC.
The Mitanians conquered and controlled Assyria until the 14th century BC while contending with Egypt for control of parts of modern Syria.
[citation needed] A number of small kingdoms existed in Arabia from around AD 100 to perhaps about AD 400.
[68] The civilisation of ancient Egypt was characterised primarily by intensive agricultural use of the fertile Nile Valley;[69] the use of the Nile itself for transportation;[70] the development of writing systems – first hieroglyphs and then later hieratic and other derived scripts – and literature;[71] the organisation of collective projects such as the pyramids;[72] trade with surrounding regions;[73] and a polytheistic religious tradition that included elaborate funeral customs including mummification.
[60] Ancient Carthage was a city-state that ruled an empire through alliances and trade influence that stretched throughout North Africa and modern Spain.
The Third Intermediate Period was marked by the rule of priests as well as the conquest of Egypt by Nubian kings and then later Assyria, Persia, and Macedonians.
Their period of greatest military expansion occurred under Shapur I, who by the time of his death in AD 272 had defeated Roman imperial armies and set up buffer states between the Sasanians and Roman Empires.
[77] The Middle Kingdom began around 2000 BC with the reunification of Egypt under pharoes ruling from Thebes.
It was concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River,[65] reaching its greatest extent during the 2nd millennium BC, which is referred to as the New Kingdom period.
The Assyrian kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history.
Around 300 BC, the region became more desiccated and the settlements began to decline, most likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh.
This archaeological site is located about 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) away from the modern town and is believed to have been involved in long-distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice.
[14] Pottery developed independently throughout the world,[15] with fired pots appearing first among the Jomon of Japan and in West Africa at Mali.
[22]
History by region
West Asia
The ancient Near East is considered the cradle of civilisation.
Towns similar to that at Djenne-Jeno also developed at the site of Dia, also in Mali along the Niger River, from around 900 BC.
[66]
Nubia
The Ta-Seti kingdom in Nubia to the south of Egypt was conquered by Egyptian rulers around 3100 BC, but by 2500 BC the Nubians had created a new kingdom further south, known as the Kingdom of Kush, centred on the upper Nile with a capital at Kerma.
The city is believed to have been abandoned and moved where the current city is located due to the spread of Islam and the building of the Great Mosque of Djenné.
Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history through late antiquity.
[30] Agricultural communities emerged in the area with the Halaf culture around 8000 BC and continued to expand through the Ubaid period around 6000 BC.
[63] At the height of the city’s influence, its empire included most of the western Mediterranean.
[13]

Metal use in the form of hammered copper items predates the discovery of smelting of copper ores, which happened around 6000 BC in western Asia and independently in eastern Asia before 2000 BC.
[11] The Nile River Valley has evidence of sorghum and millet cultivation starting around 8000 BC and agricultural use of yams in Western Africa perhaps dates to the same time period.
[60] The empire was in a constant state of struggle with the Roman Republic, which led to a series of conflicts known as the Punic Wars.
Bantu expansion
Peoples speaking precursors to the modern-day Bantu languages began to spread throughout southern Africa, and by 2000 BC they were expanding past the Congo River and into the Great Lakes area.
The empire built on earlier Mesopotamian systems of government to govern their large empire.
By AD 1000 these groups had spread throughout all of southern Africa south of the equator.
[4] Evidence for the use of fire has been dated as early as 1.8 million years ago, a date which is contested,[5] with generally accepted evidence for the controlled use of fire dating to 780,000 years ago.
Judah emerged somewhat later than Israel, probably during the 9th century BC, but the subject is one of considerable controversy.
After 2100 BC, the Old Kingdom dissolved into smaller states during the First Intermediate Period, which lasted about 100 years.
[37] Through the spread of Sargon’s empire, the language of Akkad, known as Akkadian from the city, spread and replaced the Sumerian language in Mesopotamia and eventually by 1450 BC was the main language of diplomacy in the Near East.
[55]

Following the fall of Babylon to the Persian Empire, Cyrus the Great allowed the rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem,[56] and some of the exiles from Judah returned to Judea,[57] where they remained under Persian rule until the Maccabean revolt led to independence during Hellenistic period until Roman conquest.
These technologies helped increase population, and settled communities became common in sub-Saharan Africa except in deserts or heavy forests.
This period lasted until about 1000 BC, and saw Egypt expand its borders into Palestine and Syria.
However, sites such as Djenné-Djenno disprove this, as these traditions in West Africa flourished long before.
With the help of archaeological excavations mainly by Susan and Roderick McIntosh, the site is known to have been occupied from 250 BC to AD 900.
Previously, it was assumed that advanced trade networks and complex societies did not exist in the region until the arrival of traders from Southwest Asia.
[78] The Hyksos were expelled from Egypt and the land was reunited in the New Kingdom around 1550 BC.
[51]
Israel
Israel and Judah were related Iron Age kingdoms of the ancient Levant and had existed during the Iron Ages and the Neo-Babylonian, Persian and Hellenistic periods.
Nubian rulers conquered Egypt around 760 BC and retained control for about a century.
Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctive lashed-lug ships, although Tamil and Persian traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.
[93] Between 1500 and 500 BC these peoples spread throughout most of India and had begun to found small cities.
Korea and Vietnam were brought under Han rule by Han Wudi in the second century BC, and this rule led to cultural influences on both areas for many centuries to come.
[106][104]
Mainland Southeast Asia
The earliest known evidence of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia was found at Ban Chiang in north-east Thailand and among the Phùng Nguyên culture of northern Vietnam around 2000 BCE.
[164]

Jomon culture formed in Japan before 500 BC and under Chinese influence became the Yayoi culture which built large tombs by AD 200.
[136]
East Asia
China
The Chinese civilisation that emerged within the Yellow River valley is one of earliest civilisations in the world.
Under his successors the empire spread to include much of India except for the Deccan Plateau and the very south of the peninsula.
The trade was established by links between the indigenous peoples of Taiwan and the Philippines, and later included parts of Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and other areas in Southeast Asia (known as the Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere).
[149][150]

After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of the 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other is known as the Warring States period.
[129][130] It is likely that the Austronesians that settled Madagascar followed a coastal route through South Asia and East Africa, rather than directly across the Indian Ocean.
[119][120]
Austronesians established prehistoric maritime trade networks in Island Southeast Asia, including the Maritime Jade Road, a jade trade network, in Southeast Asia which existed in Taiwan and the Philippines for 3,000 years from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.
[133]

By around the 2nd century BCE, the Neolithic Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia connected with the maritime trade routes of South Asia, the Middle East, eastern Africa, and the Mediterranean, becoming what is now known as the Maritime Silk Road.
[126][127][128]

They also established early long-distance contacts with Africa, possibly as early as before 500 BCE, based on archaeological evidence like banana phytoliths in Cameroon and Uganda and remains of Neolithic chicken bones in Zanzibar.
In his reign unified China created the first continuous Great Wall with the use of forced labour.
[148] In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only.
[140] Little is yet known about the Xia, which appears to have begun around 2200 BC, and may have controlled parts of the Yangtze River valley.
[102]

Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterised as “agrarian kingdoms”,[103] developed an economy by around 500 BCE based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products.
India would remain fragmented into smaller states until the rise of the Mughal Empire in the 1500s.
The Zhou initially established their capital in the west near modern Xi’an, near the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the Yangtze River valley.
[152] As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning, were annexed by the growing power of the rulers of Qin,[153] they were governed under the new local administrative system of commandery.
[134][135] It allowed the exchange of goods from East and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way to Europe and eastern Africa on the other.
[118] There is also putative evidence, based in the spread of the sweet potato, that Austronesians may have reached South America from Polynesia, where they might have traded with the Indigenous peoples of the Americas.
This faith also spread throughout Eastern and Southeastern Asia after his death.
By the end of the Vedic period, this way of organising society had become central to Indian society.
[157] The Han dynasty promoted the spread of iron agricultural tools, which helped create a food surplus that led to a large growth of population during the Han period.
[122][123][124][125] During the operation of the Maritime Jade Road, the Austronesian spice trade networks were also established by Islander Southeast Asians with Sri Lanka and Southern India by around 1000 to 600 BCE.
[156] After the emperor’s death rebellions began and the Han dynasty took power and ruled China for over four centuries with a brief interruption from AD 9 to 23.
[162] Wudi also faced a threat from the Xiongnu, a nomadic people from the Central Asian steppes.
The Qin period also saw the standardisation of the Chinese writing system and the government unified the legal systems as well as setting standardised units of measurement throughout the empire.
[90] By about 1600 BC, the Indus Valley culture had abandoned many of their cities, including Mohenjo-Daro.
China would remain divided for almost the next 400 years.
The Gupta Empire was weakened and ultimately ruined by the raids of Hunas (a branch of the Hephthalites emanating from Central Asia), and the empire broke up into smaller regional kingdoms by the end of the fifth century AD.
[96] Siddhartha Gautama, born around 560 BC in northern India, went on to found a new religion based on his ascetic life – Buddhism.
[95] Religion in the late Vedic period was evolving into Hinduism, which spread throughout Southeast Asia.
[115]

Soon after reaching the Philippines, Austronesians colonized the Northern Mariana Islands by 1500 BCE or even earlier, becoming the first humans to reach Remote Oceania.
These first settlers settled in northern Luzon, in the archipelago of the Philippines, intermingling with the earlier Australo-Melanesian population who had inhabited the islands since about 23,000 years earlier.
[129][130] An Austronesian group, originally from the Makassar Strait region around Kalimantan and Sulawesi,[131][132] eventually settled Madagascar, either directly from Southeast Asia or from preexisting mixed Austronesian-Bantu populations from East Africa.
Another name for this civilisation is Harappan,[20] after the first of its cities to be excavated, Harappa (now in the Pakistani province of Punjab).
The western half of the empire, including Hispania, Gaul, and Italy, eventually broke into independent kingdoms in the 5th century AD;[195] the Eastern Roman Empire, governed from Constantinople, is referred to as the Byzantine Empire after AD 476,[196] the traditional date for the “fall of Rome” and subsequent onset of the Middle Ages.
[193] Throughout the first and second centuries AD, the Empire grew slightly while spreading Roman culture throughout its boundaries.
This period saw the expansion of the Greek world around the Mediterranean, with the founding of Greek city-states as far afield as Sicily in the west and the Black Sea in the east.
The Chavin culture, based around the Chavin cult, emerged around 1000 BC and led to large temples and artworks as well as sophisticated textiles.
[181] The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, along with several other civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean, during the regional event known as the Late Bronze Age collapse.
[197]
Late antiquity
The Roman Empire underwent considerable social, cultural and organisational change starting with reign of Diocletian, who began the custom of splitting the empire into eastern and western halves ruled by multiple emperors.
Along with a sophisticated maritime society came the construction of large monuments, which likely existed as community centres.
Proto-Celtic culture formed in the Early Iron Age in Central Europe (Hallstatt period, named for the site in present-day Austria).
The first Illyrian tribe to create its own kingdom was the Enchelei, which formed its own state around the 8th-7th century BC[207] and reached the height of their power under king Bardylis.
[178]
Northern America
Organized societies, in the ancient United States or Canada, were often mound builder civilisations.
[186] After Alexander’s death, a series of wars between his successors eventually led to three large states being formed from parts of Alexander’s conquests, each ruled by a dynasty founded by one of the successors.
One of the most significant of these was the Poverty Point culture that existed in the U.S. state of Louisiana, and was responsible for the creation of over 100 mound sites.
[187] These three kingdoms, along with smaller kingdoms, spread Greek culture and lifestyles into Asia and Egypt.
[201]

The Huns were a nomadic people who formed a large state in Eastern Europe by about AD 400, and under their leader Attila, they fought against both sections of the Roman Empire.
[citation needed] By the early centuries AD, following the expansion of the Roman Empire and the Great Migrations of Germanic peoples, Celtic culture had become restricted to the British Isles.
[191] Rome then expanded into Greece and the eastern Mediterranean,[192] while a series of internal conflicts led to the republic becoming an empire ruled by an emperor by the first century AD.
There has been attempt by scholars to connect European late antiquity to other areas in Eurasia.
The end of the Archaic period also saw the rise of Athens, which would come to be a dominant power in the Classical Period, after the reforms of Solon and the tyranny of Pisistratus.
Following Poverty Point, successive complex cultures such as the Hopewell emerged in the Southeastern United States in the Early Woodland period.
The Mycenaean civilization, the first distinctively Greek civilisation later emerged on the mainland (1600–1100 BC), consisting of a network of palace-centred states and writing the earliest attested form of Greek with the Linear B script.
[184]
The Classical Greek world was dominated throughout the 5th century BC by the major powers of Athens and Sparta.
By the later Iron Age (La Tène period), Celts had expanded over wide range of lands: as far west as Ireland and the Iberian Peninsula, as far east as Galatia (central Anatolia), and as far north as Scotland.
[185] The period in Greek history from the death of Alexander the Great until the rise of the Roman empire and its conquest of Egypt in 30 BC is known as the Hellenistic period.
Early religion was often based on location, with cities or entire countries selecting a deity, that would grant them preferences and advantages over their competitors.
[224]

Water managing Qanats which likely emerged on the Iranian plateau and possibly also in the Arabian peninsula sometime in the early 1st millennium BC spread from there slowly west- and eastward.
Through the Delian League, Athens was able to convert pan-hellenist sentiment and fear of the Persian threat into a powerful empire, and this, along with the conflict between Sparta and Athens culminating in the Peloponnesian War, was the major political development of the first part of the Classical period.
[222]

The characteristics of ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years.
However, after Attila’s death, the state fell apart and the Huns’ influence in history disappeared.
[214]

In the east, three schools of thought were to dominate Chinese thinking until the modern day.
[183] Politically, the Archaic period in Greece saw the collapse of the power of the old aristocracies, with democratic reforms in Athens and the development of Sparta’s unique constitution.
Over time, a great variety of religions developed around the world, with some of the earliest major ones being Hinduism (around 2000 BC), Buddhism (5th century BC), and Jainism (6th century BC) in India, and Zoroastrianism in Persia.
[170] Included amongst these are the Nazca culture, who were mainly village-dwelling but left behind a large ceremonial centre at Cahuachi as well as the Nazca lines, a large number of huge designs set into the desert floor.
[188]
Rome
Ancient Rome was a civilisation that grew out of the city-state of Rome, originating as a small agricultural community founded on the Italian peninsula in the 8th century BC, with influences from Greece and other Italian civilisations, such as the Etruscans.

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