• [118] Services hindered[edit] Provisioning services • Greater species diversity of plants reduces primary production (Synthesis of 7 experimental studies)[54] Regulating services
  • greater genetic and species diversity of a number of organisms reduces freshwater purification (Synthesis of 8 experimental studies, although an attempt by the authors to investigate the effect of detritivore diversity on freshwater purification
  was unsuccessful due to a lack of available evidence (only 1 observational study was found[102] • Effect of species diversity of plants on biofuel yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 3 studies)[102] • Effect
  of species diversity of fish on fishery yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 4 experimental studies and 1 observational study)[102] Regulating services • Effect of species diversity on the stability of biofuel
  yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators did not find any studies)[102] • Effect of species diversity of plants on the stability of fodder yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 2 studies)[102] •
  Effect of species diversity of plants on the stability of crop yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 1 study)[102] • Effect of genetic diversity of plants on the stability of crop yield (In a survey of the literature,
  the investigators only found 2 studies)[102] • Effect of diversity on the stability of wood production (In a survey of the literature, the investigators could not find any studies)[102] • Effect of species diversity of multiple taxa on erosion
  control (In a survey of the literature, the investigators could not find any studies – they did, however, find studies on the effect of species diversity and root biomass)[102] • Effect of diversity on flood regulation (In a survey of the
  literature, the investigators could not find any studies)[102] • Effect of species and trait diversity of plants on soil moisture (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 2 studies)[102] Other sources have reported somewhat
  conflicting results and in 1997 Robert Costanza and his colleagues reported the estimated global value of ecosystem services (not captured in traditional markets) at an average of $33 trillion annually.

• [31] Some 0.075 million species of fungi had been documented by 2001;[32] • 1 million mites[33] • The number of microbial species is not reliably known, but the Global Ocean
  Sampling Expedition dramatically increased the estimates of genetic diversity by identifying an enormous number of new genes from near-surface plankton samples at various marine locations, initially over the 2004–2006 period.

• [92] Some scientists believe that corrected for sampling artifacts, modern biodiversity may not be much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago,[89] whereas others
  consider the fossil record reasonably reflective of the diversification of life.

• [18] As one author states, “Tetrapods have not yet invaded 64 percent of potentially habitable modes and it could be that without human influence the ecological and taxonomic
  diversity of tetrapods would continue to increase exponentially until most or all of the available eco-space is filled.

• [25] Other estimates include: • 220,000 vascular plants, estimated using the species-area relation method[26] • 0.7-1 million marine species[27] • 10–30 million insects;[28]
  (of some 0.9 million we know today)[29] • 5–10 million bacteria;[30] • 1.5-3 million fungi, estimates based on data from the tropics, long-term non-tropical sites and molecular studies that have revealed cryptic speciation.

• [99] It has been argued that the present rate of extinction is sufficient to eliminate most species on the planet Earth within 100 years.

• Colombia is characterized by high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemics (species that are not found
  naturally anywhere else) of any country.

• While records of life in the sea show a logistic pattern of growth, life on land (insects, plants and tetrapods) shows an exponential rise in diversity.

• [97][98] Most biologists agree however that the period since human emergence is part of a new mass extinction, named the Holocene extinction event, caused primarily by the
  impact humans are having on the environment.

• • Greater species and trait diversity of plants may or may not increase long term carbon storage (Synthesis of 33 observational studies)[102] • Greater pollinator diversity
  may or may not increase pollination (Synthesis of 7 observational studies),[102] but a publication from March 2013 suggests that increased native pollinator diversity enhances pollen deposition (although not necessarily fruit set as the authors
  would have you believe, for details explore their lengthy supplementary material).

• [106] One review found mixed evidence (Synthesis of 287 experimental studies[115]), while another found contrary evidence (Synthesis of 100 experimental studies[112]) • Greater
  species diversity of animals may or may not decrease disease prevalence on those animals (Synthesis of 45 experimental and observational studies),[116] although a 2013 study offers more support showing that biodiversity may in fact enhance
  disease resistance within animal communities, at least in amphibian frog ponds.

• [40] Estimates reach as high as 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory).

• [34] The findings may eventually cause a significant change in the way science defines species and other taxonomic categories.

• [120] Agriculture[edit] See also: Agricultural biodiversity Amazon Rainforest in South America Agricultural diversity can be divided into two categories: intraspecific diversity,
  which includes the genetic variation within a single species, like the potato (Solanum tuberosum) that is composed of many different forms and types (e.g.

• [109][110] Although another review of 38 experimental studies found mixed support for this claim, suggesting that in cases where mutual intraguild predation occurs, a single
  predatory species is often more effective[111] • of plants decreases disease prevalence on plants (Synthesis of 107 experimental studies)[112] • of plants increases resistance to plant invasion (Data from two separate reviews; Synthesis of
  105 experimental studies;[112] Synthesis of 15 experimental studies[113]) • of plants increases carbon sequestration, but note that this finding only relates to actual uptake of carbon dioxide and not long-term storage, see below; Synthesis
  of 479 experimental studies)[54] • plants increases soil nutrient remineralization (Synthesis of 103 experimental studies)[112] • of plants increases soil organic matter (Synthesis of 85 experimental studies)[112] Services with mixed evidence[edit]
  Provisioning services • None to date Regulating services • Greater species diversity of plants may or may not decrease herbivorous pest populations.

• “[5] • 1967 – Raymond F. Dasmann used the term biological diversity in reference to the richness of living nature that conservationists should protect in his book A Different
  Kind of Country.

• History of the term • 1916 – The term biological diversity was used first by J. Arthur Harris in “The Variable Desert,” Scientific American: “The bare statement that the region
  contains a flora rich in genera and species and of diverse geographic origin or affinity is entirely inadequate as a description of its real biological diversity.

• [4] The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity named the Holocene extinction, and
  often referred to as the sixth mass extinction.

• [citation needed] The rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction
  rates.

• “[18] It also appears that the diversity continues to increase over time, especially after mass extinctions.

• [100] New species are regularly discovered (on average between 5–10,000 new species each year, most of them insects) and many, though discovered, are not yet classified (estimates
  are that nearly 90% of all arthropods are not yet classified).

• [58] Areas with dense human populations and intense agricultural land use, such as Europe, parts of Bangladesh, China, India and North America, are less intact in terms of
  their biodiversity.

• Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future as a primary result of deforestation.

• According to one of the researchers, “If life arose relatively quickly on Earth…then it could be common in the universe.

• [87] The origin of life has not been established by science, however, some evidence suggests that life may already have been well-established only a few hundred million years
  after the formation of the Earth.

• [35][36] Since the rate of extinction has increased, many extant species may become extinct before they are described.

• [49] Dave Goulson of Sussex University stated that their study suggested that humans “appear to be making vast tracts of land inhospitable to most forms of life, and are currently
  on course for ecological Armageddon.

• [94] Diversification[edit] The existence of a global carrying capacity, limiting the amount of life that can live at once, is debated, as is the question of whether such a
  limit would also cap the number of species.

• [46] In absolute terms, the planet has lost 58% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2016 study by the World Wildlife Fund.

• Brazil’s Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350 vertebrates and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere
  else.

• [21] • The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined “biological diversity” as “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial,
  marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems”.

• [119] Since the Stone Age, species loss has accelerated above the average basal rate, driven by human activity.

• [59] Role and benefits of biodiversity General ecosystem services[edit] Further information: Ecosystem services From the perspective of the method known as Natural Economy
  the economic value of 17 ecosystem services for Earth’s biosphere (calculated in 1997) has an estimated value of US$33 trillion per year.

• [18] However, not all scientists support this view, since there is uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation
  of recent geologic sections.

• [61][62] The biodiversity of forests varies considerably according to factors such as forest type, geography, climate and soils – in addition to human use.

• This is despite the fact that high-income countries use five times the ecological resources of low-income countries, which was explained as a result of a process whereby wealthy
  nations are outsourcing resource depletion to poorer nations, which are suffering the greatest ecosystem losses.

• Definitions “Biodiversity” is most commonly used to replace the more clearly-defined and long-established terms, species diversity and species richness.

• [107] However, there is not enough data to draw a conclusion about the effect of tree trait diversity on wood production.

• [38] Loss of biodiversity During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed.

• [23] • The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines biodiversity in 2019 as “the variability that exists among living organisms (both within and
  between species) and the ecosystems of which they are part.

• diversity within a single species) increases overall crop yield (synthesis of 575 experimental studies).

• [93] Most of the terrestrial diversity is found in tropical forests and in general, the land has more species than the ocean; some 8.7 million species may exist on Earth,
  of which some 2.1 million live in the ocean.

• [18] Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million, with a best estimate of somewhere near 9 million,[59] the vast majority
  arthropods.

• [95] On the other hand, changes through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with the hyperbolic model (widely used in population biology, demography and macrosociology,
  as well as fossil biodiversity) than with exponential and logistic models.

• [58] A new method used in 2011, put the total number of species on Earth at 8.7 million, of which 2.1 million were estimated to live in the ocean.

• “[86] Evolution History[edit] Biodiversity is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution.

• [60] Apparent marine fossil diversity during the Phanerozoic[88] The history of biodiversity during the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years), starts with rapid growth
  during the Cambrian explosion—a period during which nearly every phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared.

• The ongoing global biodiversity crisis not only involves biological extinctions, but also the loss of experience and the gradual fading of cultural knowledge and collective
  memory of species.

• Conversely, biodiversity positively impacts human health in many ways, although a few negative effects are studied.

• The conservation of the world’s biodiversity is thus utterly dependent on the way in which we interact with and use the world’s forests.

• In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.

• [41] This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because few species emerge each year.

• [47] The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that “the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40
  years ago”.

• [16][17] An advantage of this definition is that it presents a unified view of the traditional types of biological variety previously identified: • taxonomic diversity (usually
  measured at the species diversity level)[18] • ecological diversity (often viewed from the perspective of ecosystem diversity)[18] • morphological diversity (which stems from genetic diversity and molecular diversity[19]) • functional diversity
  (which is a measure of the number of functionally disparate species within a population (e.g.

• [1] Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth; it is usually greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near
  the equator.

• Several ecological factors may contribute to the gradient, but the ultimate factor behind many of them is the greater mean temperature at the equator compared to that of the
  poles.

• The reduction is caused primarily by human impacts, particularly habitat destruction.

• [93] Diversity appears to increase continually in the absence of natural selection.

• The other category of agricultural diversity is called interspecific diversity and refers to the number and types of different species.

• [96] The hyperbolic pattern of the world population growth arises from a second-order positive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth.

• [72] In this study, the species pool size and the fractal nature of ecosystems were combined to clarify some general patterns of this gradient.

• “[3] Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity.

• Estimates on the number of Earth’s current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86% have not yet been described.

• [22] • Gaston and Spicer’s definition in their book “Biodiversity: an introduction” in 2004 is “variation of life at all levels of biological organization”.

• “[50] In 2020 the World Wildlife Foundation published a report saying that “biodiversity is being destroyed at a rate unprecedented in human history”.

 

Works Cited

[‘1. “What is biodiversity?” (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre.
2. ^ Tracy, Benjamin F. (2000). Plant Ecology. 149 (2): 169–180. doi:10.1023/a:1026536223478. ISSN 1385-0237. S2CID 26006709 http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1026536223478.
{{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
3. ^ “Excite News – Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth”. apnews.excite.com. 23 October 2015. Archived from the original on 23 October 2015. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
4. ^
Jarić, Ivan; Roll, Uri; Bonaiuto, Marino; Brook, Barry W.; Courchamp, Franck; Firth, Josh A.; Gaston, Kevin J.; Heger, Tina; Jeschke, Jonathan M.; Ladle, Richard J.; Meinard, Yves; Roberts, David L.; Sherren, Kate; Soga, Masashi; Soriano-Redondo,
Andrea (May 2022). “Societal extinction of species”. Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 37 (5): 411–419. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2021.12.011. hdl:10138/358259. PMID 35181167. S2CID 246894136.
5. ^ Harris, J. Arthur (1916). “The Variable Desert”. The Scientific
Monthly. 3 (1): 41–50. JSTOR 6182.
6. ^ Dasmann, Raymond F. (1967). “A Different Kind of Country”. Kirkus Reviews. Retrieved 7 August 2022.
7. ^ Brown, William Y. Brown (9 August 2011). “Conserving Biological Diversity”. Brookings Institution.
Retrieved 7 August 2022.
8. ^ Terbogh, John (1974). “The Preservation of Natural Diversity: The Problem of Extinction Prone Species”. BioScience. 24 (12): 715–722. doi:10.2307/1297090. JSTOR 1297090.
9. ^ Soulé, Michael E.; Wilcox, Bruce A. (1980).
Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective. Sunder*land, Mass: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0-87893-800-1.
10. ^ “Robert E. Jenkins”. Nature.org. 18 August 2011. Archived from the original on 19 September 2012. Retrieved 24 September
2011.
11. ^ Wilson, E. O. (1988). Biodiversity. National Academy Press. p. vi. doi:10.17226/989. ISBN 978-0-309-03739-6. PMID 25032475.
12. ^ Tangley, Laura (1985). “A New Plan to Conserve the Earth’s Biota”. BioScience. 35 (6): 334–336+341.
doi:10.1093/bioscience/35.6.334. JSTOR 1309899.
13. ^ Wilson, E.O. (1 January 1988). Biodiversity. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-03739-6. online edition Archived 13 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine
14. ^ Global Biodiversity Assessment:
Summary for Policy-makers. Cambridge University Press. 1995. ISBN 978-0-521-56481-6. Annex 6, Glossary. Used as source by “Biodiversity”, Glossary of terms related to the CBD Archived 10 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Belgian Clearing-House
Mechanism. Retrieved 26 April 2006.
15. ^ Walker, Brian H. (1992). “Biodiversity and Ecological Redundancy”. Conservation Biology. 6 (1): 18–23. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.610018.x.
16. ^ Tor-Björn Larsson (2001). Biodiversity evaluation tools
for European forests. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 178. ISBN 978-87-16-16434-6. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
17. ^ Davis. Intro To Env Engg (Sie), 4E. McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-07-067117-1. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
18. ^ Jump up
to:a b c d e f g h Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J.; Ferry, Paul (2010). “Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land”. Biology Letters. 6 (4): 544–547. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024. PMC 2936204. PMID
20106856.
19. ^ Campbell, AK (2003). “Save those molecules: molecular biodiversity and life”. Journal of Applied Ecology. 40 (2): 193–203. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00803.x.
20. ^ Lefcheck, Jon (20 October 2014). “What is functional diversity,
and why do we care?”. sample(ECOLOGY). Retrieved 22 December 2015.
21. ^ Jump up to:a b c Wilcox, Bruce A. 1984. In situ conservation of genetic resources: determinants of minimum area requirements. In National Parks, Conservation and Development,
Proceedings of the World Congress on National Parks, J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller, Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 18–30.
22. ^ Jump up to:a b D. L. Hawksworth (1996). Biodiversity: measurement and estimation. p. 6. doi:10.1098/rstb.1994.0081.
ISBN 978-0-412-75220-9. PMID 7972355. Retrieved 28 June 2011. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
23. ^ Gaston, Kevin J.; Spicer, John I. (13 February 2004). Biodiversity: An Introduction. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-1857-6.
24. ^ Bélanger, J.;
Pilling, D. (2019). The State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture (PDF). Rome: FAO. p. 4. ISBN 978-92-5-131270-4.
25. ^ Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; Simpson, Alastair G. B.; Worm, Boris; Mace, Georgina M. (23 August
2011). “How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?”. PLOS Biology. 9 (8): e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. PMC 3160336. PMID 21886479.
26. ^ Wilson, J. Bastow; Peet, Robert K.; Dengler, Jürgen; Pärtel, Meelis (1 August 2012).
“Plant species richness: the world records”. Journal of Vegetation Science. 23 (4): 796–802. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2012.01400.x. S2CID 53548257.
27. ^ Appeltans, W.; Ahyong, S. T.; Anderson, G; Angel, M. V.; Artois, T.; and 118 others (2012).
“The Magnitude of Global Marine Species Diversity”. Current Biology. 22 (23): 2189–2202. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.09.036. PMID 23159596.
28. ^ “Numbers of Insects (Species and Individuals)”. Smithsonian Institution.
29. ^ Galus, Christine (5 March
2007). “Protection de la biodiversité : un inventaire difficile”. Le Monde (in French).
30. ^ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Census of Marine Life (CoML) News.BBC.co.uk
31. ^ Hawksworth, D. L. (24 July 2012). “Global species
numbers of fungi: are tropical studies and molecular approaches contributing to a more robust estimate?”. Biodiversity and Conservation. 21 (9): 2425–2433. doi:10.1007/s10531-012-0335-x. S2CID 15087855.
32. ^ Hawksworth, D (2001). “The magnitude
of fungal diversity: The 1.5 million species estimate revisited”. Mycological Research. 105 (12): 1422–1432. doi:10.1017/S0953756201004725. S2CID 56122588.
33. ^ “Acari at University of Michigan Museum of Zoology Web Page”. Insects.ummz.lsa.umich.edu.
10 November 2003. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
34. ^ “Fact Sheet – Expedition Overview” (PDF). J. Craig Venter Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 June 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
35. ^ Mirsky, Steve (21 March 2007). “Naturally Speaking:
Finding Nature’s Treasure Trove with the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition”. Scientific American. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
36. ^ “Article collections published by the Public Library of Science”. PLoS Collections. doi:10.1371/issue.pcol.v06.i02 (inactive
1 August 2023). Archived from the original on 12 September 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
37. ^ McKie, Robin (25 September 2005). “Discovery of new species and extermination at high rate”. The Guardian. London.
38. ^ Bautista, Luis M.; Pantoja,
Juan Carlos (2005). “What species should we study next?”. Bulletin of the British Ecological Society. 36 (4): 27–28. hdl:10261/43928.
39. ^ Gabriel, Sigmar (9 March 2007). “30% of all species lost by 2050”. BBC News.
40. ^ Jump up to:a b Reid,
Walter V. (1995). “Reversing the loss of biodiversity: An overview of international measures”. Arid Lands Newsletter. Ag.arizona.edu.
41. ^ Pimm, S. L.; Russell, G. J.; Gittleman, J. L.; Brooks, T. M. (1995). “The Future of Biodiversity” (PDF).
Science. 269 (5222): 347–350. Bibcode:1995Sci…269..347P. doi:10.1126/science.269.5222.347. PMID 17841251. S2CID 35154695. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
42. ^ Carrington D (2 February 2021). “Economics
of biodiversity review: what are the recommendations?”. The Guardian. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
43. ^ Jump up to:a b Dasgupta, Partha (2021). “The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review Headline Messages” (PDF). UK government. p. 1. Retrieved
16 December 2021. Biodiversity is declining faster than at any time in human history. Current extinction rates, for example, are around 100 to 1,000 times higher than the baseline rate, and they are increasing.
44. ^ De Vos JM, Joppa LN, Gittleman
JL, Stephens PR, Pimm SL (April 2015). “Estimating the normal background rate of species extinction” (PDF). Conservation Biology. 29 (2): 452–62. doi:10.1111/cobi.12380. PMID 25159086. S2CID 19121609.
45. ^ Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Raven PH (June
2020). “Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (24): 13596–13602. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11713596C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1922686117.
PMC 7306750. PMID 32482862.
46. ^ “Researches find threat from biodiversity loss equals climate change threat”. Winnipeg Free Press. 7 June 2012.
47. ^ Living Planet Report 2016 Risk and resilience in a new era (PDF) (Report). World Wildlife Fund
International. 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
48. ^ Living Planet Report 2014 (PDF), World Wildlife Fund, archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2014, retrieved 4 October 2014
49. ^ Hallmann,
Caspar A.; Sorg, Martin; Jongejans, Eelke; Siepel, Henk; Hofland, Nick; Schwan, Heinz; Stenmans, Werner; Müller, Andreas; Sumser, Hubert; Hörren, Thomas; Goulson, Dave (18 October 2017). “More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying
insect biomass in protected areas”. PLOS ONE. 12 (10): e0185809. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1285809H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185809. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5646769. PMID 29045418.
50. ^ Carrington, Damian (18 October 2017). “Warning of ‘ecological Armageddon’
after dramatic plunge in insect numbers”. The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 July 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2022.
51. ^ Briggs, Helen (10 September 2020). “Wildlife in ‘catastrophic decline’ due to human destruction, scientists warn”.
BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
52. ^ Clay, Keith; Holah, Jenny (10 September 1999). “Fungal Endophyte Symbiosis and Plant Diversity in Successional Fields”. Science. 285 (5434): 1742–1744. doi:10.1126/science.285.5434.1742. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID
10481011.
53. ^ Jump up to:a b Morand, Serge; Krasnov, Boris R. (1 September 2010). The Biogeography of Host-Parasite Interactions. Oxford University Press. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-0-19-956135-3. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
54. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Cardinale,
Bradley. J.; et al. (March 2011). “The functional role of producer diversity in ecosystems”. American Journal of Botany. 98 (3): 572–592. doi:10.3732/ajb.1000364. hdl:2027.42/141994. PMID 21613148. S2CID 10801536.
55. ^ “A Durable Yet Vulnerable
Eden in Amazonia”. Dot Earth blog, New York Times. 20 January 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
56. ^ Margot S. Bass; Matt Finer; Clinton N. Jenkins; Holger Kreft; Diego F. Cisneros-Heredia; Shawn F. McCracken; Nigel C. A. Pitman; Peter H. English;
Kelly Swing; Gorky Villa; Anthony Di Fiore; Christian C. Voigt; Thomas H. Kunz (2010). “Global Conservation Significance of Ecuador’s Yasuní National Park”. PLOS ONE. 5 (1): e8767. Bibcode:2010PLoSO…5.8767B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008767. PMC
2808245. PMID 20098736.
57. ^ Benton M. J. (2001). “Biodiversity on land and in the sea”. Geological Journal. 36 (3–4): 211–230. doi:10.1002/gj.877. S2CID 140675489.
58. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i The State of the World’s Forests 2020. In
brief – Forests, biodiversity and people. Rome, Italy: FAO & UNEP. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8985en. ISBN 978-92-5-132707-4. S2CID 241416114.text was added from this source which has a Wikipedia-specific licence statement
59. ^ Jump up to:a b c Mora,
C.; et al. (2011). “How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?”. PLOS Biology. 9 (8): e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. PMC 3160336. PMID 21886479.
60. ^ Jump up to:a b Microorganisms Editorial Office (9 January 2019). “Acknowledgement
to Reviewers of Microorganisms in 2018”. Microorganisms. 7 (1): 13. doi:10.3390/microorganisms7010013. PMC 6352028.
61. ^ “Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020”. www.fao.org. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
62. ^ “The State of the World’s Forests
2020: Forests, biodiversity and people [EN/AR/RU] – World | ReliefWeb”. reliefweb.int. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
63. ^ “39% of the EU is covered with forests”. ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
64. ^ Cavallito, Matteo (8 April 2021). “European
forests are expanding. But their future is unwritten”. Re Soil Foundation. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
65. ^ Mora C, Robertson DR (2005). “Causes of latitudinal gradients in species richness: a test with fishes of the Tropical Eastern Pacific” (PDF).
Ecology. 86 (7): 1771–1792. doi:10.1890/04-0883. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
66. ^ Currie, D. J.; Mittelbach, G. G.; Cornell, H. V.; Kaufman, D. M.; Kerr, J. T.; Oberdorff, T. (2004). “A critical
review of species-energy theory”. Ecology Letters. 7 (12): 1121–1134. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00671.x. S2CID 212930565.
67. ^ Allen A. P.; Gillooly J. F.; Savage V. M.; Brown J. H. (2006). “Kinetic effects of temperature on rates of genetic
divergence and speciation”. PNAS. 103 (24): 9130–9135. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.9130A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603587103. PMC 1474011. PMID 16754845.
68. ^ Hillebrand H (2004). “On the generality of the latitudinal diversity gradient” (PDF). The American
Naturalist. 163 (2): 192–211. doi:10.1086/381004. PMID 14970922. S2CID 9886026.
69. ^ Karakassis, Ioannis; Moustakas, Aristides (September 2005). “How diverse is aquatic biodiversity research?”. Aquatic Ecology. 39 (3): 367–375. doi:10.1007/s10452-005-6041-y.
S2CID 23630051.
70. ^ Bahram, Mohammad; Hildebrand, Falk; Forslund, Sofia K.; Anderson, Jennifer L.; Soudzilovskaia, Nadejda A.; Bodegom, Peter M.; Bengtsson-Palme, Johan; Anslan, Sten; Coelho, Luis Pedro; Harend, Helery; Huerta-Cepas, Jaime; Medema,
Marnix H.; Maltz, Mia R.; Mundra, Sunil; Olsson, Pål Axel (August 2018). “Structure and function of the global topsoil microbiome”. Nature. 560 (7717): 233–237. Bibcode:2018Natur.560..233B. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0386-6. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 30069051.
S2CID 256768771.
71. ^ Bickel, Samuel; Or, Dani (8 January 2020). “Soil bacterial diversity mediated by microscale aqueous-phase processes across biomes”. Nature Communications. 11 (1): 116. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11..116B. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-13966-w.
ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6949233. PMID 31913270.
72. ^ Cazzolla Gatti, R (2016). “The fractal nature of the latitudinal biodiversity gradient”. Biologia. 71 (6): 669–672. doi:10.1515/biolog-2016-0077. S2CID 199471847.
73. ^ Cogitore, Clément (1983–….).
(January 1988), Hypothesis, ISBN 9780309037396, OCLC 968249007
74. ^ Biodiversity A-Z. “Biodiversity Hotspots”.
75. ^ Myers N (1988). “Threatened biotas: ‘hot spots’ in tropical forests”. Environmentalist. 8 (3): 187–208. doi:10.1007/BF02240252.
PMID 12322582. S2CID 2370659.
76. ^ Myers N (1990). “The biodiversity challenge: expanded hot-spots analysis” (PDF). Environmentalist. 10 (4): 243–256. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.468.8666. doi:10.1007/BF02239720. PMID 12322583. S2CID 22995882. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 9 September 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
77. ^ Tittensor D.; et al. (2011). “Global patterns and predictors of marine biodiversity across taxa” (PDF). Nature. 466 (7310): 1098–1101. Bibcode:2010Natur.466.1098T. doi:10.1038/nature09329.
PMID 20668450. S2CID 4424240. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
78. ^ McKee, Jeffrey K. (December 2004). Sparing Nature: The Conflict Between Human Population Growth and Earth’s Biodiversity. Rutgers
University Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-8135-3558-6. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
79. ^ Galindo-Leal, Carlos (2003). The Atlantic Forest of South America: Biodiversity Status, Threats, and Outlook. Washington: Island Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-55963-988-0.
80. ^
Myers, Norman; Mittermeier, Russell A.; Mittermeier, Cristina G.; da Fonseca, Gustavo A. B.; Kent, Jennifer (February 2000). “Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities”. Nature. 403 (6772): 853–858. Bibcode:2000Natur.403..853M. doi:10.1038/35002501.
eISSN 1476-4687. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 10706275. S2CID 4414279. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
81. ^ “Colombia in the World”. Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Research on Biological Resources. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved
30 December 2013.
82. ^ godfrey, laurie. “isolation and biodiversity”. pbs.org. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
83. ^ Jump up to:a b Harrison, Susan P. (15 May 2013), “Plant Endemism in California”, Plant and Animal Endemism in California, University
of California Press, pp. 43–76, doi:10.1525/california/9780520275546.003.0004, ISBN 978-0-520-27554-6
84. ^ “Madagascar – A World Apart: Eden Evolution”. www.pbs.org. Retrieved 6 June 2019.
85. ^ Normile, Dennis (10 September 2010). “Saving Forests
to Save Biodiversity”. Science. 329 (5997): 1278–1280. Bibcode:2010Sci…329.1278N. doi:10.1126/science.329.5997.1278. PMID 20829464.
86. ^ White, Gilbert (1887). “letter xx”. The Natural History of Selborne: With A Naturalist’s Calendar & Additional
Observations. Scott.
87. ^ Algeo, T. J.; Scheckler, S. E. (29 January 1998). “Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events”. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 353 (1365): 113–130. doi:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195. PMC 1692181.
88. ^ Rosing, M.; Bird, D.; Sleep, N.; Bjerrum, C. (2010). “No climate paradox under the faint early Sun”. Nature. 464 (7289): 744–747. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..744R.
doi:10.1038/nature08955. PMID 20360739. S2CID 205220182.
89. ^ Jump up to:a b Alroy, J; Marshall, CR; Bambach, RK; Bezusko, K; Foote, M; Fursich, FT; Hansen, TA; Holland, SM; et al. (2001). “Effects of sampling standardization on estimates of Phanerozoic
marine diversification”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (11): 6261–6266. Bibcode:2001PNAS…98.6261A. doi:10.1073/pnas.111144698. PMC 33456. PMID 11353852.
90. ^ Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang,
H.J. (2010). “Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica”. Geology. 38 (12): 1079–1082. Bibcode:2010Geo….38.1079S. doi:10.1130/G31182.1.
91. ^ Sahney, S. & Benton, M.J. (2008). “Recovery from the most profound
mass extinction of all time”. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1636): 759–765. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID 18198148.
92. ^ Schopf, J. William; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy B.; Czaja, Andrew D.; Tripathi, Abhishek
B. (5 October 2007). “Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils”. Precambrian Research. Earliest Evidence of Life on Earth. 158 (3–4): 141–155. Bibcode:2007PreR..158..141S. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009.
93. ^ Jump up to:a b
“Mapping the web of life”. Unep.org. Archived from the original on 14 February 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
94. ^ Okasha, S. (2010). “Does diversity always grow?”. Nature. 466 (7304): 318. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..318O. doi:10.1038/466318a.
95. ^
“Stanford researchers discover that animal functional diversity started poor, became richer over time”. biox.stanford.edu. 11 March 2015.
96. ^ Jump up to:a b Hautmann, Michael; Bagherpour, Borhan; Brosse, Morgane; Frisk, Åsa; Hofmann, Richard;
Baud, Aymon; Nützel, Alexander; Goudemand, Nicolas; Bucher, Hugo; Brayard, Arnaud (2015). “Competition in slow motion: the unusual case of benthic marine communities in the wake of the end-Permian mass extinction”. Palaeontology. 58 (5): 871–901.
Bibcode:2015Palgy..58..871H. doi:10.1111/pala.12186. S2CID 140688908.
97. ^ Jump up to:a b c Markov, AV; Korotaev, AV (2008). “Hyperbolic growth of marine and continental biodiversity through the phanerozoic and community evolution”. Journal of
General Biology. 69 (3): 175–194. PMID 18677962.
98. ^ Jump up to:a b Markov, A; Korotayev, A (2007). “Phanerozoic marine biodiversity follows a hyperbolic trend”. Palaeoworld. 16 (4): 311–318. doi:10.1016/j.palwor.2007.01.002.
99. ^ National
Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis Archived 7 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine American Museum of Natural History
100. ^ Jump up to:a b Wilson, Edward O. (1 January 2002). The Future of Life. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45078-8.
101. ^ Costanza,
R.; d’Arge, R.; de Groot, R.; Farberk, S.; Grasso, M.; Hannon, B.; Limburg, Karin; Naeem, Shahid; et al. (1997). “The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital” (PDF). Nature. 387 (6630): 253–260. Bibcode:1997Natur.387..253C. doi:10.1038/387253a0.
S2CID 672256. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2009.
102. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Cardinale, Bradley; et al. (2012). “Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity” (PDF). Nature. 486 (7401): 59–67. Bibcode:2012Natur.486…59C.
doi:10.1038/nature11148. PMID 22678280. S2CID 4333166.
103. ^ Wright, Richard T., and Bernard J. Nebel. Environmental Science : toward a Sustainable Future. Eighth ed., Upper Saddle River, N.J., Pearson Education, 2002.
104. ^ Daniel, T. C.; et
al. (21 May 2012). “Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (23): 8812–8819. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109.8812D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1114773109. PMC 3384142. PMID 22615401.
105. ^
Kiaer, Lars P.; Skovgaard, M.; Østergård, Hanne (1 December 2009). “Grain yield increase in cereal variety mixtures: A meta-analysis of field trials”. Field Crops Research. 114 (3): 361–373. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2009.09.006.
106. ^ Jump up to:a b Letourneau,
Deborah K. (1 January 2011). “Does plant diversity benefit agroecosystems? A synthetic review”. Ecological Applications. 21 (1): 9–21. doi:10.1890/09-2026.1. PMID 21516884. S2CID 11439673.
107. ^ Piotto, Daniel (1 March 2008). “A meta-analysis comparing
tree growth in monocultures and mixed plantations”. Forest Ecology and Management. 255 (3–4): 781–786. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2007.09.065.
108. ^ Futuyma, Douglas J.; Shaffer, H. Bradley; Simberloff, Daniel, eds. (1 January 2009). Annual Review of
Ecology, Evolution and Systematics: Vol 40 2009. Palo Alto, Calif.: Annual Reviews. pp. 573–592. ISBN 978-0-8243-1440-8.
109. ^ Philpott, Stacy M.; Soong, Oliver; Lowenstein, Jacob H.; Pulido, Astrid Luz; Lopez, Diego Tobar (1 October 2009). Flynn,
Dan F. B.; DeClerck, Fabrice. “Functional richness and ecosystem services: bird predation on arthropods in tropical agroecosystems”. Ecological Applications. 19 (7): 1858–1867. doi:10.1890/08-1928.1. PMID 19831075. S2CID 9867979.
110. ^ Van Bael,
Sunshine A; et al. (April 2008). “Birds as predators in tropical agroforestry systems”. Ecology. 89 (4): 928–934. doi:10.1890/06-1976.1. hdl:1903/7873. PMID 18481517.
111. ^ Vance-Chalcraft, Heather D.; et al. (1 November 2007). “The Influence of
Intraguild Predation on Prey Suppression and Prey Release: A Meta-analysis”. Ecology. 88 (11): 2689–2696. doi:10.1890/06-1869.1. PMID 18051635. S2CID 21458500.
112. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Quijas, Sandra; Schmid, Bernhard; Balvanera, Patricia (1
November 2010). “Plant diversity enhances provision of ecosystem services: A new synthesis”. Basic and Applied Ecology. 11 (7): 582–593. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.473.7444. doi:10.1016/j.baae.2010.06.009.
113. ^ Levine, Jonathan M.; Adler, Peter B.; Yelenik,
Stephanie G. (6 September 2004). “A meta-analysis of biotic resistance to exotic plant invasions”. Ecology Letters. 7 (10): 975–989. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00657.x. S2CID 85852363.
114. ^ Crowder, David W.; et al. (2010). “Organic agriculture
promotes evenness and natural pest control”. Nature. 466 (7302): 109–112. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..109C. doi:10.1038/nature09183. PMID 20596021. S2CID 205221308.
115. ^ Andow, D A (1 January 1991). “Vegetational Diversity and Arthropod Population
Response”. Annual Review of Entomology. 36 (1): 561–586. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.36.010191.003021.
116. ^ Keesing, Felicia; et al. (December 2010). “Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases”. Nature. 468 (7324):
647–652. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..647K. doi:10.1038/nature09575. PMC 7094913. PMID 21124449.
117. ^ Johnson, Pieter T. J.; et al. (13 February 2013). “Biodiversity decreases disease through predictable changes in host community competence”. Nature.
494 (7436): 230–233. Bibcode:2013Natur.494..230J. doi:10.1038/nature11883. PMID 23407539. S2CID 205232648.
118. ^ Garibaldi, L. A.; et al. (28 February 2013). “Wild Pollinators Enhance Fruit Set of Crops Regardless of Honey Bee Abundance”. Science.
339 (6127): 1608–1611. Bibcode:2013Sci…339.1608G. doi:10.1126/science.1230200. PMID 23449997. S2CID 88564525.
119. ^ Costanza, Robert; et al. (1997). “The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital”. Nature. 387 (6630): 253–260.
Bibcode:1997Natur.387..253C. doi:10.1038/387253a0. S2CID 672256.
120. ^ Jump up to:a b Hassan, Rashid M.; et al. (2006). Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends : findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group of the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment. Island Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-55963-228-7.
121. ^ Jump up to:a b Vandermeer, John H. (2011). The Ecology of Agroecosystems. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-7153-9.
122. ^ IPBES (26 June 2018). “Assessment Report
on Pollinators, Pollination and Food Production”. ipbes.org. IPBES. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
123. ^ Bommarco (2013). “Ecological intensification: harnessing ecosystem services for food security”. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 28 (4): 230–238.
doi:10.1016/j.tree.2012.10.012. PMID 23153724.
124. ^ Jump up to:a b c “Rice Grassy Stunt Virus”. Lumrix.net. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
125. ^ Wahl, GM; Robert de Saint Vincent B; Derose, ML (1984). “Effect
of chromosomal position on amplification of transfected genes in animal cells”. Nature. 307 (5951): 516–520. Bibcode:1984Natur.307..516W. doi:10.1038/307516a0. PMID 6694743. S2CID 4322191.
126. ^ “Southern Corn Leaf Blight”. Archived from the original
on 14 August 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2007.
127. ^ Aswathanarayana, Uppugunduri (2012). Natural Resources – Technology, Economics & Policy. Leiden, Netherlands: CRC Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-0-203-12399-7.
128. ^ Aswathanarayana, Uppugunduri
(2012). Natural Resources – Technology, Economics & Policy. Leiden. Netherlands: CRC Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-0-203-12399-7.
129. ^ World Health Organization(WHO) and Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2015) Connecting Global
Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health, a State of Knowledge Review . See also Website of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity on biodiversity and health. Other relevant resources include Reports of the 1st and 2nd International
Conferences on Health and Biodiversity. Archived 7 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine See also: Website of the UN COHAB Initiative Archived 4 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
130. ^ Jump up to:a b Chivian, Eric, ed. (15 May 2008). Sustaining
Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity. OUP US. ISBN 978-0-19-517509-7.
131. ^ Corvalán, Carlos; Hales, Simon; Anthony J. McMichael (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Health Synthesis. World Health Organization. p. 28. ISBN 978-92-4-156309-3.
132. ^
(2009) “Climate Change and Biological Diversity” Convention on Biological Diversity Retrieved 5 November 2009
133. ^ Ramanujan, Krishna (2 December 2010). “Study: Loss of species is bad for your health”. Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
134. ^
The World Bank (30 June 2010). Water and Development: An Evaluation of World Bank Support, 1997–2007. World Bank Publications. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-8213-8394-0.
135. ^ “Drinking-water”. World Health Organization.
136. ^ Gaston, Kevin J.; Warren,
Philip H.; Devine-Wright, Patrick; Irvine, Katherine N.; Fuller, Richard A. (2007). “Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity”. Biology Letters. 3 (4): 390–394. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0149. PMC 2390667. PMID 17504734.
137. ^
“COHAB Initiative: Biodiversity and Human Health – the issues”. Cohabnet.org. Archived from the original on 5 September 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
138. ^ “World Wildlife Fund (WWF): “Arguments for Protection” website”. Wwf.panda.org. Retrieved
24 September 2011.
139. ^ “Science points to causes of COVID-19”. United Nations Environmental Programm. United Nations. 22 May 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
140. ^ Keesing, Felicia; Belden, Lisa K.; Daszak, Peter; Dobson, Andrew; Harvell, C.
Drew; Holt, Robert D.; Hudson, Peter; Jolles, Anna; Jones, Kate E.; Mitchell, Charles E.; Myers, Samuel S.; Bogich, Tiffany; Ostfeld, Richard S. (1 December 2010). “Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases”.
Nature. 468 (7324): 647–652. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..647K. doi:10.1038/nature09575. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 7094913. PMID 21124449.
141. ^ Mendelsohn, Robert; Balick, Michael J. (1 April 1995). “The value of undiscovered pharmaceuticals in tropical forests”.
Economic Botany. 49 (2): 223–228. doi:10.1007/BF02862929. S2CID 39978586.
142. ^ (2006) “Molecular Pharming” GMO Compass Retrieved 5 November 2009, GMOcompass.org Archived 8 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine
143. ^ Mendelsohn, Robert; Balick,
Michael J. (1 July 1997). “Notes on economic plants”. Economic Botany. 51 (3): 328. doi:10.1007/BF02862103. S2CID 5430635.
144. ^ Harvey, Alan L. (1 October 2008). “Natural products in drug discovery”. Drug Discovery Today. 13 (19–20): 894–901.
doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2008.07.004. PMID 18691670.
145. ^ Hawkins E.S., Reich; Reich, MR (1992). “Japanese-originated pharmaceutical products in the United States from 1960 to 1989: an assessment of innovation”. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 51 (1): 1–11.
doi:10.1038/clpt.1992.1. PMID 1732073. S2CID 46010944.
146. ^ Roopesh, J.; et al. (10 February 2008). “Marine organisms: Potential Source for Drug Discovery” (PDF). Current Science. 94 (3): 292. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 October 2011.
147. ^
Dhillion, SS; Svarstad, H; Amundsen, C; Bugge, HC (2002). “Bioprospecting: Effects on environment and development”. Ambio. 31 (6): 491–493. doi:10.1639/0044-7447(2002)031[0491:beoead]2.0.co;2. JSTOR 4315292. PMID 12436849.
148. ^ Cole, A. (16 July
2005). “Looking for new compounds in sea is endangering ecosystem”. BMJ. 330 (7504): 1350. doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7504.1350-d. PMC 558324. PMID 15947392.
149. ^ “COHAB Initiative – on Natural Products and Medicinal Resources”. Cohabnet.org. Archived
from the original on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
150. ^ IUCN, WRI, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Earthwatch Inst. 2007 Business and Ecosystems: Ecosystem Challenges and Business Implications
151. ^ Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment 2005 Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Opportunities and Challenges for Business and Industry
152. ^ “Business and Biodiversity webpage of the U.N. Convention on Biological Diversity”. Cbd.int. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
153. ^
WRI Corporate Ecosystem Services Review. See also: Examples of Ecosystem-Service Based Risks, Opportunities and Strategies Archived 1 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
154. ^ Corporate Biodiversity Accounting. See also: Making the Natural Capital
Declaration Accountable.
155. ^ Tribot, A.; Mouquet, N.; Villeger, S.; Raymond, M.; Hoff, F.; Boissery, P.; Holon, F.; Deter, J. (2016). “Taxonomic and functional diversity increase the aesthetic value of coralligenous reefs” (PDF). Scientific Reports.
6: 34229. Bibcode:2016NatSR…634229T. doi:10.1038/srep34229. PMC 5039688. PMID 27677850.
156. ^ Broad, William (19 November 1996). “Paradise Lost: Biosphere Retooled as Atmospheric Nightmare”. The New York Times. Retrieved 10 April 2013.
157. ^
Ponti, Crystal (3 March 2017). “Rise of the Robot Bees: Tiny Drones Turned into Artificial Pollinators”. NPR. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
158. ^ LOSEY, JOHN E.; VAUGHAN, MACE (1 January 2006). “The Economic Value of Ecological Services Provided by
Insects”. BioScience. 56 (4): 311. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[311:TEVOES]2.0.CO;2.
159. ^ “Species Evenness – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics”. www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 25 February 2023.
160. ^ Chakraborty, Jaya; Palit, Krishna;
Das, Surajit (2022), “Metagenomic approaches to study the culture-independent bacterial diversity of a polluted environment—a case study on north-eastern coast of Bay of Bengal, India”, Microbial Biodegradation and Bioremediation, Elsevier, pp. 81–107,
doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-85455-9.00014-X, ISBN 9780323854559, S2CID 244883885, retrieved 25 February 2023
161. ^ Hamilton, Andrew J. (1 April 2005). “Species diversity or biodiversity?”. Journal of Environmental Management. 75 (1): 89–92. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2004.11.012.
ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 15748806.
162. ^ Ortiz-Burgos, Selene (2016), “Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/aidanmorgan/2256230386/’]