british empire

 

  • [27] The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment
    of joint-stock companies, most notably the East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade.

  • [67] Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies Main articles: American Revolution, United States, Decolonization of the Americas, British North America, History of Canada (1763–1867),
    and War of 1812 British claims in North America, 1763–1776 During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament’s attempts
    to govern and tax American colonists without their consent.

  • In North America, France’s future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert’s Land,[45] and the ceding of New France to Britain
    (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain.

  • [56] Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the Nine Years’ War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between
    France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget to the costly land war in Europe.

  • Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years’ War therefore left Britain as the world’s most powerful maritime power.

  • [69] The loss of such a large portion of British America, at the time Britain’s most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition
    between the “first” and “second” empires,[70] in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa.

  • [66] The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers.

  • [60] “First” British Empire (1707–1783) The 18th century saw the newly united Great Britain rise to be the world’s dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival
    on the imperial stage.

  • [19][20] Several people who helped establish the Ulster Plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West
    Country Men.

  • [55] Although England eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands’ more advanced financial system[56] and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of
    the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia.

  • This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces—a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars—which would eventually strengthen England’s position in the Americas at the expense of
    the Dutch.

  • At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire’s monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies
    to finance the voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively.

  • [65] In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers
    under the threat of force from the Presidency Armies, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys, led by British officers.

  • [72][73] The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000[74] defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following
    independence.

  • In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the Treaty of Madrid Britain lost
    its slave-trading rights in Latin America.

  • Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world’s preeminent industrial or military power.

  • The following year, in 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence proclaiming the colonies’ sovereignty from the British Empire as the new
    United States of America.

  • [80] Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to Australia.

  • The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783.

  • A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial
    power in North America.

  • By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of
    Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France.

  • The Company’s army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years’ War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the
    French from Egypt (1799),[118] the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826).

  • [45] Two years later, the Royal African Company was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean.

  • Military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire.

  • This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as
    the “First British Empire”.

  • [76] The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English speaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking) to defuse tensions between the
    French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to
    have led to the American Revolution.

  • [78][79] Rise of the “Second” British Empire (1783–1815) Exploration of the Pacific Main articles: History of Australia (1788–1850) and History of New Zealand James Cook’s
    mission was to find the alleged southern continent Terra Australis.

  • [59] The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the Kingdom of Scotland of the merits of turning the personal union with England into
    a political and economic one under the Kingdom of Great Britain established by the Acts of Union 1707.

  • [116] Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain’s dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many
    countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been described by some historians as an “Informal Empire”.

  • European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with many trading stations being established, especially in the North.

  • [56] During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, as the English East India Company and its
    French counterpart, struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire.

  • The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain’s decline as a global power, and the transfer of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire.

  • [48] British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3.5 million Africans[49]—and dominated global slave trading in the 25 years preceding
    its abolition by Parliament in 1807 (see § Abolition of slavery).

  • [120] During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the Company.

  • This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas
    and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World.

  • [64] France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India.

  • Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised
    the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal.

  • [119] In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in the seizure
    by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement, and other Treaty Ports including Shanghai.

  • Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions,
    such as Asia and Latin America.

  • [12] No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century.

  • The Slavery Abolition Act, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the Empire into line with the law in the UK
    (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844).

  • After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states.

  • [77] Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American
    ships to impress men into the Royal Navy.

  • [18] Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the
    Ulster Plantation, in 16th century Ireland by settling English Protestants in Ulster.

  • By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain’s economic lead.

  • [111] Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia.

  • [28] Americas, Africa and the slave trade Main articles: British colonisation of the Americas, British America, Thirteen Colonies, British West Indies, and Atlantic slave
    trade African slaves working in 17th-century Virginia, by an unknown artist, 1670.

  • England had already colonised part of the country following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169.

  • In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada’s future would be separate from that of the United
    States.

  • [42] To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their
    trade in English colonies.

  • [99] It was not only Britain’s position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of
    continental Europe.

  • Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations’ colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies.

  • [30] The first permanent English settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown by Captain John Smith, and managed by the Virginia Company; the Crown took direct
    control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia.

  • [44] In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert’s Land, which would
    later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada.

  • [67][71] The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith’s view that political control was not necessary for
    economic success.

  • [36] The British West Indies initially provided England’s most important and lucrative colonies.

  • [112] Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica,[113][114][115] and a foreign policy of “splendid
    isolation”.

  • Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present-day North Carolina, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail.

  • In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead an expedition to discover a northwest
    passage to Asia via the North Atlantic.

  • [96] This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets
    around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island.

  • The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as the
    major military and political power in India.

  • Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped accelerate the decline of the empire.

  • India, Britain’s most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to
    most territories of the empire.

  • An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits.

  • British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and
    defend the empire.

  • In the Second World War, Britain’s colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan.

  • England’s North American holdings were further expanded by the annexation of the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, following the capture of New Amsterdam, which was
    renamed New York.

  • Alexander Mackenzie of the North West Company led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year a later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the
    Rio Grande, reaching the ocean near present-day Bella Coola.

  • The entry of French and Spanish forces into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans’ favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating
    peace terms.

  • He believed he had reached Asia,[11] and there was no attempt to found a colony.

  • Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France.

 

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