-
[85] In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his “B” notebook on Transmutation of Species, and on page 36 wrote “I think” above his first evolutionary tree Early in March, Darwin
moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell’s social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage,[86] who described God as a programmer of laws. -
His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring “a new &
important theory” on their role in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837. -
“[118] Darwin’s “sandwalk” at Down House in Kent was his usual “thinking path”[119] By July, Darwin had expanded his “sketch” into a 230-page “Essay”, to be expanded with
his research results if he died prematurely. -
[18][104] As he later wrote in his Autobiography: In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus
on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations
would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. -
Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work…[105] By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and
a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that “every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected”,[106] thinking this comparison “a beautiful part of my theory”. -
[71][113] Darwin’s book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he
then wrote his first “pencil sketch” of his theory of natural selection. -
[29] Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson’s natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism.
-
Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,[87] but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel’s letter
praising Lyell’s approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species. -
[80] Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal
College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. -
British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work, due to natural history collecting being encouraged throughout the British Empire, and there was a danger of specimens
just being left in storage. -
Darwin’s father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking
experts to describe the collections. -
[70][71] In Cape Town, South Africa, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on
“that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others” as “a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process”. -
FitzRoy had given him the first volume of Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology, which set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods,[II]
and Darwin saw things Lyell’s way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology. -
[129] He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming
adapted to “diversified places in the economy of nature”. -
[11][12] Darwin’s early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates.
-
[126] In eight years of work on barnacles, Darwin’s theory helped him to find “homologies” showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new
conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes. -
Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally “denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species”.
-
[15] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.
-
[18] For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections, in particular,
the barnacles. -
[83][84] Darwin’s first paper showed that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell’s enthusiastic backing he read it to the Geological Society of London
on 4 January 1837. -
The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817.
-
As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while HMS Beagle surveyed and charted coasts.
-
Questions of how to combine his diary into the Narrative were resolved at the end of the month when FitzRoy accepted Broderip’s advice to make it a separate volume, and Darwin
began work on his Journal and Remarks. -
[78][79] Inception of Darwin’s evolutionary theory Further information: Inception of Darwin’s theory While still a young man, Darwin joined the scientific elite; portrait
by George Richmond On 2 October 1836 Beagle anchored at Falmouth, Cornwall. -
[120] In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation.
-
[34] He met other leading parson-naturalists who saw scientific work as religious natural theology, becoming known to these dons as “the man who walks with Henslow”.
-
[116][117] Hooker replied “There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species.
-
[73] He later wrote that such facts “seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species”.
-
[95] Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists
and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers. -
[44] Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.
-
[76] Darwin first heard of this at Cape Town,[77] and at Ascension Island read of Sedgwick’s prediction that Darwin “will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe”.
-
[102] Malthus and natural selection Continuing his research in London, Darwin’s wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus’s An Essay on the Principle of Population.
-
[123] In 1847, Hooker read the “Essay” and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin’s
opposition to continuing acts of creation. -
[55] On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and anthropological insights into both native and
colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories. -
[39] He read John Herschel’s new book, Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (1831), which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding
such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt’s Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799–1804. -
[89] By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that “one species does change into another”
to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal Macrauchenia, which resembled a giant guanaco, a llama relative. -
He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected
on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures. -
He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.
-
Inspired with “a burning zeal” to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics.
-
[69] Darwin’s Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on geology and natural history.
-
[9] In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process he called natural
selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. -
[30] Darwin’s neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who sent him to Christ’s College, Cambridge in January 1828, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first
step towards becoming an Anglican country parson. -
[37] In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.
-
[65][66] In Australia, the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.
-
[18][46] He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters
including a copy of his journal for his family. -
He returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary place on HMS Beagle with
captain Robert FitzRoy, a position for a gentleman rather than “a mere collector”. -
[13] His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836 established Darwin as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell’s concept of gradual
geological change. -
[90] Overwork, illness, and marriage Further information: Health of Charles Darwin While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work.
-
[42][43] Robert Darwin objected to his son’s planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood II, to agree
to (and fund) his son’s participation. -
The result of this would be the formation of new species.
-
-
[58][59] Three Fuegians on board, who had been seized during the first Beagle voyage then given Christian education in England, were returning with a missionary.
-
The finds were shipped to England, and scientists found the fossils of great interest.
-
One day, Grant praised Lamarck’s evolutionary ideas.
-
[94] His Journal was printed and ready for publication by the end of February 1838, as was the first volume of the Narrative, but FitzRoy was still working hard to finish
his own volume. -
[82] In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to arrange expert classification of his collections, and prepare his own research for publication.
-
[19][20] By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact.
-
Darwin was well prepared to compare this to Augustin de Candolle’s “warring of the species” of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers
of a species kept roughly stable. -
He wrote that the “final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes”, so that “One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand
wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones. -
[27] In Darwin’s second year at the university, he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural-history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students
with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science. -
On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell’s presidential address presented Owen’s findings on Darwin’s fossils, stressing geographical
continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas. -
[25] Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the well regarded University of Edinburgh Medical
School with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. -
[32] Bicentennial portrait by Anthony Smith of Darwin as a student, in the courtyard at Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he had rooms[33] During the first few months of
Darwin’s enrollment at Christ’s College, his second cousin William Darwin Fox was still studying there. -
[72] When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Islands fox were
correct, “such facts undermine the stability of Species”, then cautiously added “would” before “undermine”. -
Advantages under “Marry” included “constant companion and a friend in old age … better than a dog anyhow”, against points such as “less money for books” and “terrible loss
of time”. -
[74] Without telling Darwin, extracts from his letters to Henslow had been read to scientific societies, printed as a pamphlet for private distribution among members of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, and reported in magazines,[75] including The Athenaeum. -
[88] The two rheas were distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.
-
After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.
-
[110] Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research Further information: Development of Darwin’s theory Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin Darwin
now had the framework of his theory of natural selection “by which to work”,[105] as his “prime hobby”. -
[10] Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.
Works Cited
[‘^ Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism, but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell’s ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy’s
diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plains were raised beaches, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.(Browne 1995, pp. 186, 414)
II. ^ In the section
“Morphology” of Chapter XIII of On the Origin of Species, Darwin commented on homologous bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: “What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging,
the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?”[242] and in the concluding chapter: “The framework of bones
being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications.”[243]
III. 1 2 3 In On the Origin of Species Darwin
mentioned human origins in his concluding remark that “In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by
gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history.”[143]
In “Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory” he referred to sexual selection: “I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so
strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous.”[142]
In
The Descent of Man of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage: “During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought
that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my ‘Origin of Species,’ that by this work ‘light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;’ and this implies
that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth.”[244] In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: “it has been said by several
critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the ‘Origin of Species,’
and I there stated that it was applicable to man.”[245]
IV. ^ See, for example, WILLA volume 4, Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education by Deborah M. De Simone: “Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of
thinkers who matured during the period of “intellectual chaos” caused by Darwin’s Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing
social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration.”
V. ^ See, for example, the song “A lady fair of lineage high” from Gilbert and Sullivan’s Princess Ida, which describes the descent of man (but not woman!)
from apes.
VI. ^ Darwin’s belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from John Edmonstone in 1826.[27] Early in the Beagle voyage, Darwin nearly lost
his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy’s defence and praise of slavery. (Darwin 1958, p. 74) He wrote home about “how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England
if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro
character.” (Darwin 1887, p. 246) Regarding Fuegians, he “could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power
of improvement”, but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like Jemmy Button: “It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with
the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here.” (Darwin 1845, pp. 205, 207–208)
In the Descent of Man, he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians’ and Edmonstone’s minds to Europeans’ when arguing against “ranking the so-called races of
man as distinct species”.[246]
He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of Patagonian men, women, and children, “Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians.
Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?”(Darwin 1845, p. 102)
VII. 1 2 Geneticists studied human heredity as Mendelian inheritance, while eugenics movements sought to manage society,
with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this movement as impractical pseudoscience. A shift from voluntary arrangements to “negative” eugenics included
compulsory sterilisation laws in the United States, copied by Nazi Germany as the basis for Nazi eugenics based on virulent racism and “racial hygiene”.
(Thurtle, Phillip (17 December 1996). “the creation of genetic identity”. SEHR. Vol. 5, no. Supplement:
Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism. Retrieved 11 November 2008. Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). “The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection”. Genetics. Vol. 154, no. April 2000. pp. 1419–1426. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Retrieved
11 November 2008.Wilkins, John. “Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics”. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2008.)
VIII. ^ David Quammen writes of his “theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane
botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a ‘horrid bore’ – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him… alone”.
David Quammen, “The Brilliant Plodder” (review of Ken Thompson, Darwin’s Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy, University of Chicago Press, 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate
of an Evolutionary Eden, Yale University Press, 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834, Edinburgh University Press, 222 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 7
(23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.
1. Freeman 2007, p. 76.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b “Search Results: Record – Darwin; Charles Robert”. catalogues.royalsociety.org. 20 June 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
3. ^
Jump up to:a b c d e Freeman 2007, p. 106
4. ^ “Darwin Endless Forms » Darwin in Cambridge”. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017.
5. ^ “Charles Darwin’s personal finances revealed in new find”. 22 March 2009. Archived from the original
on 19 October 2017 – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
6. ^ van Wyhe, John; Chua, Christine. Charles Darwin: Justice of the Peace: The Complete Records (1857–1882) (PDF).
7. ^ “Darwin” Archived 18 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine entry in Collins English
Dictionary.
8. ^ Desmond, Moore & Browne 2004
9. ^ Coyne, Jerry A. (2009). Why Evolution is True. Viking. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-0-670-02053-9.
10. ^ Larson 2004, pp. 79–111
11. ^ “Special feature: Darwin 200”. New Scientist. Archived from the
original on 11 February 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b “Westminster Abbey » Charles Darwin”. Westminster Abbey. 2 January 2016. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
Leff 2000, Darwin’s Burial
13. ^
Jump up to:a b Leff 2000, About Charles Darwin
14. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 210, 284–285
15. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 263–274
16. ^ van Wyhe 2007, pp. 184, 187
17. ^ Beddall, B. G. (1968). “Wallace, Darwin, and the Theory of Natural
Selection”. Journal of the History of Biology. 1 (2): 261–323. doi:10.1007/BF00351923. S2CID 81107747.
18. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h van Wyhe 2008
19. ^ Coyne, Jerry A. (2009). Why Evolution is True. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 17.
ISBN 978-0-19-923084-6. In The Origin, Darwin provided an alternative hypothesis for the development, diversification, and design of life. Much of that book presents evidence that not only supports evolution but at the same time refutes creationism.
In Darwin’s day, the evidence for his theories was compelling but not completely decisive.
20. ^ Glass, Bentley (1959). Forerunners of Darwin. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. iv. ISBN 978-0-8018-0222-5. Darwin’s solution is a
magnificent synthesis of evidence…a synthesis…compelling in honesty and comprehensiveness
21. ^ Jump up to:a b Bowler 2003, pp. 178–179, 338, 347
22. ^ Desmond, Adrian J. (13 September 2002). “Charles Darwin”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived
from the original on 6 February 2018. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
23. ^ John H. Wahlert (11 June 2001). “The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)”. Darwin and Darwinism. Baruch College. Archived from the original on 6 December 2008.
Retrieved 26 November 2008.
24. ^ Smith, Homer W. (1952). Man and His Gods. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. pp. 339–40.
25. ^ Jump up to:a b Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 12–15
Darwin 1958, pp. 21–25
26. ^ Darwin 1958, pp. 46–48.
27. ^ Jump up to:a
b c Darwin 1958, p. 51
Desmond & Moore 2009, pp. 18–26
28. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 31–34.
29. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 72–88
30. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 42–43
31. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 47–48, 89–91
Desmond & Moore 2009, pp. 47–48
32. ^
Darwin 1887, p. 48.
33. ^ Jump up to:a b “Darwin statue unveiled at college”. BBC News. 12 February 2009. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
34. ^ Jump up to:a b Smith, Homer W. (1952). Man and His Gods. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. pp. 357–58.
35. ^ Jump
up to:a b Darwin 1887, pp. 50–51
36. ^ van Wyhe, John (ed.). “Darwin’s insects in Stephens’ Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32)”. Darwin Online. Archived from the original on 1 September 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
37. ^ Jump up to:a
b Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 73–79, 763
Darwin 1958, pp. 57–67
38. ^ Browne 1995, p. 97
39. ^ Jump up to:a b von Sydow 2005, pp. 5–7
40. ^ Jump up to:a b Darwin 1958, pp. 67–68
41. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 128–129, 133–141
42. ^ Peter Lucas (1
January 2010). “The recovery of time past: Darwin at Barmouth on the eve of the Beagle”. Darwin Online. Retrieved 5 December 2021.
43. ^ “Letter no. 105, Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 24 Aug 1831”. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 29
December 2021.
44. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 94–97
45. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 204–210
46. ^ Jump up to:a b Keynes 2000, pp. ix–xi
47. ^ van Wyhe 2008b, pp. 18–21
48. ^ Gordon Chancellor; Randal Keynes (October 2006). “Darwin’s field notes
on the Galapagos: ‘A little world within itself'”. Darwin Online. Archived from the original on 1 September 2009. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
49. ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 21–22
50. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 183–190
51. ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 41–42
52. ^
Darwin 1958, pp. 73–74
53. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 223–225
Darwin 1835, p. 7
“Letter no. 213, Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 31 August 1833”. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
54. ^ Jump up to:a b Keynes 2001, pp. 106–109
55. ^
Jaksic, Fabian M. (2022). “Historical account and current ecological knowledge of the southernmost lizard in the world, Liolaemus magellanicus (Squamata: Liolaemidae)”. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural. 95 (7). doi:10.1186/s40693-022-00112-y. S2CID
252717680.
56. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 189–192, 198
57. ^ Eldredge 2006
58. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 131, 159
Herbert 1991, pp. 174–179
59. ^ “Darwin Online: ‘Hurrah Chiloe’: an introduction to the Port Desire Notebook”. Archived
from the original on 4 December 2008. Retrieved 24 October 2008.
60. ^ Darwin 1845, pp. 205–208
61. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 243–244, 248–250, 382–383
62. ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 226–227
63. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 160–168, 182
“Letter no. 275 –
Charles Darwin to Susan Elizabeth Darwin – 23 April 1835”. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 6 December 2021.
64. ^ Jump up to:a b Darwin 1958, pp. 98–99
65. ^ Jump up to:a b Keynes 2001, pp. 356–357
66. ^ Sulloway 1982, p. 19
67. ^
Jump up to:a b “Darwin Online: Coccatoos & Crows: An introduction to the Sydney Notebook”. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. Retrieved 2 January 2009.
68. ^ Keynes 2001, pp. 398–399.
69. ^ “Letter no. 301, Charles Darwin to Caroline
Darwin, 29 April 1836, Port Lewis, Mauritius”. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
70. ^ Browne 1995, p. 336
71. ^ Jump up to:a b Darwin 1839, p. viii
72. ^ Jump up to:a b van Wyhe 2007, p. 197
73. ^ Keynes 2000, pp.
xix–xx
Eldredge 2006
74. ^ Darwin 1859, p. 1
75. ^ Darwin 1835, p. 1.
76. ^ “Letter no. 291, Caroline Darwin to Charles Darwin, 29 December [1835], [Shrewsbury]”. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
77. ^ “Letter no.
302, Charles Darwin to Catherine Darwin, 3 June 1836, Cape of Good Hope”. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
78. ^ “Letter no. 288, Susan Darwin to Charles Darwin, 22 November 1835, Shrewsbury”. Darwin Correspondence Project.
Retrieved 19 January 2022.
79. ^ Darwin 1958, pp. 81–82.
80. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 195–198
81. ^ Owen 1840, pp. 16, 73, 106
Eldredge 2006
82. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 201–205
Browne 1995, pp. 349–350
83. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 345–347.
84. ^
Keynes 2001, pp. xviii–xix.
85. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 207–210
Sulloway 1982, pp. 20–23
86. ^ “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837”. Archived from the original on 29 June 2009. Retrieved
19 December 2008. proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,
Darwin’s Journal (Darwin 2006, pp. 12 verso) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837
87. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 201, 212–221
88. ^ Sulloway 1982, pp. 9, 20–23
89. ^
Browne 1995, p. 360
“Darwin, C. R. (Read 14 March 1837) Notes on Rhea americana and Rhea darwinii, Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London”. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 17 December 2008.
90. ^ Herbert 1980,
pp. 7–10
van Wyhe 2008b, p. 44
Darwin 1837, pp. 1–13, 26, 36, 74
Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 229–232
91. ^ “£1,000 in 1832 → 2021 | UK Inflation Calculator”. www.in2013dollars.com. Retrieved 8 August 2021.
92. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 367–369
93. ^
Jump up to:a b Keynes 2001, p. xix
94. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 233–234
“Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 404 – Buckland, William to Geological Society of London, 9 Mar 1838”. Archived from the original on 29 June 2009. Retrieved 23 December
2008.
95. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 233–236.
96. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 241–244, 426
97. ^ Browne 1995, p. xii
98. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 241–244
99. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 252, 476, 531
Darwin 1958, p. 115
100. ^ Desmond
& Moore 1991, p. 254
Browne 1995, pp. 377–378
Darwin 1958, p. 84
101. ^ Darwin 1958, pp. 232–233
102. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 256–259
103. ^ “Darwin transmutation notebook D pp. 134e–135e”. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved
4 June 2012.
104. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 264–265
Browne 1995, pp. 385–388
Darwin 1842, p. 7
105. ^ Jump up to:a b Darwin 1958, p. 120
106. ^ “Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 75”. Archived from the original on 28 June 2009. Retrieved
17 March 2009.
107. ^ “Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 71”. Archived from the original on 28 June 2009. Retrieved 17 March 2009.
108. ^ Jump up to:a b c “Darwin Correspondence Project – Belief: historical essay”. Archived from the original
on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 25 November 2008.
109. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 272–279
110. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 279
111. ^ “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 419 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 June 1838)”. Archived from the
original on 4 September 2007. Retrieved 8 February 2008.
112. ^ van Wyhe 2007, pp. 186–192
113. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 284–285, 292
114. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 292–293
Darwin 1842, pp. xvi–xvii
115. ^ Darwin 1958, p. 114
116. ^
van Wyhe 2007, pp. 183–184
117. ^ “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 729 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (11 January 1844)”. Archived from the original on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 8 February 2008.
118. ^ “Darwin Correspondence Project –
Letter 734 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., 29 January 1844”. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 8 February 2008.
119. ^ “Charles Darwin: a life in pictures, The Sand Walk near Down House, Darwin’s thinking path”. Darwin
Online. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
120. ^ van Wyhe 2007, p. 188
121. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 461–465
122. ^ “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 814 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (7 Jan 1845)”. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008.
Retrieved 24 November 2008.
123. ^ van Wyhe 2007, pp. 190–191
124. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 320–323, 339–348
125. ^ “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 1236 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 28 Mar 1849”. Archived from the original on
7 December 2008. Retrieved 24 November 2008.
126. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 498–501
127. ^ Darwin 1958, pp. 117–118
128. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 383–387
129. ^ Freeman 2007, pp. 107, 109
130. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 419–420
131. ^ Darwin
Online: Photograph of Charles Darwin by Maull and Polyblank for the Literary and Scientific Portrait Club (1855) Archived 7 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine, John van Wyhe, December 2006
132. ^ Jump up to:a b c Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 412–441,
457–458, 462–463
Desmond & Moore 2009, pp. 283–284, 290–292, 295
133. ^ Ball, P. (2011). Shipping timetables debunk Darwin plagiarism accusations: Evidence challenges claims that Charles Darwin stole ideas from Alfred Russel Wallace. Nature. online
Archived 22 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
134. ^ van Wyhe, John; Rookmaaker, Kees (2012). “A new theory to explain the receipt of Wallace’s Ternate Essay by Darwin in 1858”. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 105: 249–252. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01808.x.
135. ^
Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 466–470
136. ^ Browne 2002, pp. 40–42, 48–49
137. ^ Darwin 1958, p. 122
138. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 374–474
139. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 477
140. ^ Darwin 1859, p. 459
141. ^ van Wyhe 2008.
142. ^ Jump
up to:a b Darwin 1859, p. 199
Darwin & Costa 2009, p. 199
Desmond & Moore 2009, p. 310
143. ^ Jump up to:a b c Darwin 1859, p. 488
Darwin & Costa 2009, pp. 199, 488
van Wyhe 2008
144. ^ Darwin 1859, p. 5
145. ^ Darwin 1859, p. 492
146. ^
Browne 2002, p. 59, Freeman 1977, pp. 79–80
147. ^ Jump up to:a b Browne 2002, pp. 373–379
148. ^ van Wyhe 2008b, p. 48
149. ^ Browne 2002, pp. 103–104, 379
150. ^ Radick 2013, pp. 174–175
Huxley & Kettlewell 1965, p. 88
151. ^ Browne 2002,
p. 87
Leifchild 1859
152. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 477–491
153. ^ Browne 2002, pp. 110–112
154. ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 158, 186
155. ^ Jump up to:a b c d “Darwin and design: historical essay”. Darwin Correspondence Project. 2007. Archived
from the original on 15 June 2009. Retrieved 17 September 2008.
156. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 487–488, 500
157. ^ Jump up to:a b Miles 2001
158. ^ Bowler 2003, p. 185
159. ^ Browne 2002, pp. 156–159
160. ^ “Science ahead of its time:
Secret of 157-year old Darwin manuscript”. National University of Singapore News. 24 November 2022. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
161. ^ Jump up to:a b Browne 2002, pp. 217–226
162. ^ “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4652 – Falconer, Hugh
to Darwin, C. R., 3 Nov (1864)”. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2008.
163. ^ “Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4807 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., (7–8 Apr 1865)”. Archived from the original on 5 December
2008. Retrieved 1 December 2008.
164. ^ Bowler 2003, p. 196
165. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 507–508
Browne 2002, pp. 128–129, 138
166. ^ Desmond, Moore & Browne 2007, pp. 73–75.
167. ^ Desmond, Moore & Browne 2007, pp. 78–83, 86–90.
168. ^
van Wyhe 2008b, pp. 50–55
169. ^ “The correspondence of Charles Darwin, volume 14: 1866”. Archived from the original on 5 June 2010. Retrieved 6 March 2009. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 25 June 2012
170. ^ Smith 1999.
171. ^ Freeman
1977, p. 122
172. ^ Darwin 1871, pp. 385–405
Browne 2002, pp. 339–343
173. ^ Nobles, Melissa; Womack, Chad; Wonkam, Ambroise; Wathuti, Elizabeth (8 June 2022). “Science must overcome its racist legacy: Nature’s guest editors speak”. Nature.
606 (7913): 225–227. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-01527-z. “In The Descent of Man, Darwin describes what he calls the gradations between the highest men of the highest races and the lowest savages*. He uses the word ‘savages’ to describe Black and Indigenous
people.” (*see Darwin, C. R. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (John Murray, 1871))
174. ^ Browne 2002, pp. 359–369
Darwin 1887, p. 133
175. ^ Darwin 1871, p. 405
176. ^ Darwin’s Women Archived 12 February 2020 at the Wayback
Machine at Cambridge University
177. ^ Hedrich, Rainer; Fukushima, Kenji (17 June 2021). “On the Origin of Carnivory: Molecular Physiology and Evolution of Plants on an Animal Diet”. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 72 (1): 133–153. doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-080620-010429.
ISSN 1543-5008. PMID 33434053. S2CID 231595236. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
178. ^ Pain, Stephanie (2 March 2022). “How plants turned predator”. Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-030122-1. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
179. ^ Endersby, Jim (June
2016). “Deceived by orchids: sex, science, fiction and Darwin”. The British Journal for the History of Science. 49 (2): 205–229. doi:10.1017/S0007087416000352. ISSN 0007-0874. PMID 27278105. S2CID 23027055. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
180. ^ Colp,
Ralph (2008). “The Final Illnes [sic]”. Darwin’s Illness. pp. 116–120. doi:10.5744/florida/9780813032313.003.0014. ISBN 978-0-8130-3231-3.
181. ^ Clayton, Julie (24 June 2010). “Chagas disease 101”. Nature. 465 (n7301_supp): S4–S5. Bibcode:2010Natur.465S…3C.
doi:10.1038/nature09220. PMID 20571553. S2CID 205221512.
182. ^ Darwin, Emma (1882). “[Reminiscences of Charles Darwin’s last years.] CUL-DAR210.9”. Archived from the original on 28 June 2009. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
183. ^ Desmond & Moore
1991, pp. 664–677
184. ^ Jump up to:a b Van Wyhe, J. (2021). Charles Darwin: The Man, His Great Voyage, and His Theory of Evolution. Pioneers of Science. Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated. pp. 154–155. ISBN 978-1-4994-7110-6. Retrieved 23 May
2022.
185. ^ van Wyhe 2008
Darwin 1872, p. 421
186. ^ Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). “The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection”. Genetics. 154 (4): 1419–1426. doi:10.1093/genetics/154.4.1419. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Archived from the
original on 24 September 2015.
187. ^ FitzRoy 1839, pp. 216–218
188. ^ Leff 2000, Darwin’s Timeline
189. ^ “Territory origins”. Northern Territory Department of Planning and Infrastructure, Australia. Archived from the original on 18 September
2006. Retrieved 15 December 2006.
190. ^ Heard, Stephen B. (17 March 2020). Charles Darwin’s barnacle and David Bowie’s spider : how scientific names celebrate adventurers, heroes, and even a few scoundrels. Damstra, Emily S. New Haven. ISBN 978-0-300-25269-9.
OCLC 1143645266.
191. ^ “Charles Darwin 200 years – Things you didn’t know about Charles Darwin”. Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
192. ^ Sulloway 1982, pp. 45–47
193. ^ Freeman 2007, p. 94.
194. ^ Jump up
to:a b c Van Helvert, P.; Van Wyhe, J. (2021). Darwin: A Companion – With Iconographies By John Van Wyhe. World Scientific Publishing Company. pp. 115–117. ISBN 978-981-12-0822-5. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
195. ^ “Darwin’s statue on the move”. Natural
History Museum. 23 May 2008. Archived from the original on 5 December 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
196. ^ Desmond, Moore & Browne 2007, p. 111.
197. ^ “The Darwin-Wallace Medal”. The Linnean Society. 1 February 2016. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
198. ^
Bowler 2003, pp. 222–225
van Wyhe 2008
199. ^ “1909: The first Darwin centenary”. Darwin Online. 2014. Archived from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
200. ^ Desmond, Moore & Browne 2007, pp. 114–115.
201. ^ “Darwin College
– Maps and directions – University of Kent”. www.kent.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 31 October 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
202. ^ “How to join the noteworthy”. BBC News. 7 November 2000. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
203. ^ “Author Jane
Austen to feature on new £10 note”. CBBC Newsround. 24 July 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
204. ^ “Bank of England – Banknotes – Current Banknotes – £10”. bankofengland.co.uk. 25 May 2005. Archived from the original on 25 May 2005. Retrieved 24
April 2022.
205. ^ Shapin, Steven (7 January 2010). “The Darwin Show”. London Review of Books. pp. 3–9. Archived from the original on 29 December 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
206. ^ “Darwin 2009 commemorations around the world”. Darwin Online.
24 November 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
207. ^ “New Royal Mail stamps celebrate Charles Darwin”. The Guardian. 17 February 2009. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
208. ^ “Relative recreates Darwin voyage”. BBC News. 1 September 2009
209. ^ Desmond
& Moore 1991, p. 447.
210. ^ David P. Steensma (15 March 2005). “Down syndrome in Down House: trisomy 21, GATA1 mutations, and Charles Darwin”. Blood 105 (6) 2614–2616
211. ^ Freeman, R. B. (1984), Darwin Pedigrees, London, p. 43
212. ^ Darwin,
C. R. Journal (1809–1881), p. 37
213. ^ “List of Fellows of the Royal Society, 1660–2006, A–J”. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
214. ^ O’Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., “Charles Darwin”,
MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews
215. ^ Berra, Tim M. Darwin and His Children: His Other Legacy, (Oxford: 2013, Oxford UP), 101, 129, 168. George became a knight commander of the Order of the Bath in 1905. Francis
was knighted in 1912. Horace became a knight commander of the KBE in 1918.
216. ^ Edwards, A. W. F. 2004. Darwin, Leonard (1850–1943). In: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press.
217. ^ Jump up to:a b Darwin 1958, pp.
85–96
218. ^ Jump up to:a b van Wyhe 2008b, p. 41
219. ^ von Sydow 2005, pp. 8–14
220. ^ von Sydow 2005, pp. 4–5, 12–14
221. ^ Moore 2006
222. ^ “Darwin Correspondence Project – Darwin and the church: historical essay”. 5 June 2015. Archived
from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
223. ^ Jump up to:a b Letter 12041 Archived 7 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine – Darwin, C. R. to Fordyce, John, 7 May 1879
224. ^ Darwin’s Complex loss of Faith Archived
11 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian 17 September 2009
225. ^ Moore 2005
Yates 2003
226. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 196–197.
227. ^ Browne 1995, pp. 66, 198, 240.
228. ^ Silliman, B. (1810). A Journal of Travels in England, Holland
and Scotland: And of Two Passages Over the Atlantic, in the Years 1805 and 1806 … A Journal of Travels in England, Holland and Scotland: And of Two Passages Over the Atlantic, in the Years 1805 and 1806. D. & G. Bruce. pp. 216–217. Retrieved 29
August 2022. As there are no slaves in England, perhaps the English have not learned to regard negroes as a degraded class of men, as we do in the United States
Bachman, J. (1850). The Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race Examined on the Principles
of Science. American culture series. C. Canning. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-608-43507-7. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
229. ^ Wilkins 2008, pp. 408–413
230. ^ Jump up to:a b c Rozzi, Ricardo (2018). “Transformaciones del pensamiento de Darwin en cabo de hornos:
Un legado para la ciencia y la etica ambiental” [Transformations of Darwin’s thought in cape horn: A legacy for science and environmental ethics]. Magallania (in Spanish). 46 (1): 267–277. doi:10.4067/S0718-22442018000100267.
231. ^ Jump up to:a
b Barta, Tony (2 June 2005). “Mr Darwin’s shooters: on natural selection and the naturalizing of genocide”. Patterns of Prejudice. 39 (2): 116–137. doi:10.1080/00313220500106170. S2CID 159807728.
232. ^ Vandermassen, Griet (2004). “Sexual Selection:
A Tale of Male Bias and Feminist Denial”. European Journal of Women’s Studies. 11 (9): 11–13. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.550.3672. doi:10.1177/1350506804039812. S2CID 145221350.
233. ^ Desmond & Moore 1991, pp. 556–557, 572, 598
Darwin 1871, pp. 167–173,
402–403
“Correspondence between Francis Galton and Charles Darwin”. Archived from the original on 2 January 2009. Retrieved 8 November 2008.
234. ^ Jump up to:a b Wilkins 1997
Moore 2006
235. ^ Sweet 2004
236. ^ Paul 2003, pp. 223–225
237. ^
Bannister 1989
238. ^ Paul 2003
Kotzin 2004
239. ^ Balfour 1882
van Wyhe 2008
Anonymous 1882
240. ^ Brummitt, R. K.; C. E. Powell (1992). Authors of Plant Names. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 978-1-84246-085-6.
241. ^ Burke, Bernard
(1884). The General Armory of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. London: Harrison & Sons. p. 264.
242. ^ Darwin 1859, p. 434
243. ^ Darwin 1859, p. 479
244. ^ Darwin 1871, p. 1
245. ^ Darwin 1874, p. vi
246. ^ Darwin 1871, pp. 214, 232
2. Anonymous
(1882). “Obituary: Death Of Chas. Darwin”. The New York Times. No. 21 April 1882. Archived from the original on 15 October 2009. Retrieved 30 October 2008.
3. Balfour, J. H. (11 May 1882). “Obituary Notice of Charles Robert Darwin” . Transactions
& Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh (14): 284–298.
4. Bannister, Robert C. (1989). Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-0-87722-566-9.
5. Bowler, Peter
J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea (3rd ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23693-6.
6. Browne, E. Janet (1995). Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voyaging. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-1-84413-314-7.
7. Browne, E. Janet (2002).
Charles Darwin: vol. 2 The Power of Place. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-7126-6837-8.
8. Darwin, Charles (1 December 1835). Henslow, J S (ed.). [Extracts from letters addressed to Professor Henslow]. Darwin Online. Cambridge: [privately printed].
Retrieved 27 January 2022.
9. Darwin, Charles (1837). Notebook B: (Transmutation of species). Darwin Online. CUL-DAR121. Archived from the original on 8 February 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
10. Darwin, Charles (1839). Narrative of the surveying
voyages of His Majesty’s Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle’s circumnavigation of the globe. Journal and remarks. 1832–1836. Vol. III.
London: Henry Colburn. Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2008.
11. Darwin, Charles (1842). “Pencil Sketch of 1842”. In Darwin, Francis (ed.). The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and
1844. Cambridge University Press (published 1909). ISBN 978-0-548-79998-7. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2006.
12. Darwin, Charles (1845). Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the
countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N. 2d edition. London: John Murray. Archived from the original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2008.
13. Darwin, Charles (1859).
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st ed.). London: John Murray. ISBN 978-1-4353-9386-8. Archived from the original on 5 October 2008. Retrieved 24 October 2008.
14. Darwin,
Charles (1871). T Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/trishhamme/5960270643/’]