chess

 

  • [21] Chess theory usually divides the game of chess into three phases with different sets of strategies: the opening, typically the first 10 to 20 moves, when players move
    their pieces to useful positions for the coming battle; the middlegame; and last the endgame, when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a more active part in the struggle, and pawn promotion is often decisive.

  • [note 1] • Draw on time: In games with a time control, the game is drawn if a player is out of time and no sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate the
    player.

  • Because the opening theory has ended, players have to form plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take into account the tactical possibilities of
    the position.

  • For a large numbers of players, the Swiss system may be used, in which each player is paired against an opponent who has the same (or as similar as possible) score in each
    round.

  • • Dead position: If neither player is able to checkmate the other by any legal sequence of moves, the game is drawn.

  • Chess is a board game for two players, called White and Black, each controlling an army of chess pieces in their color, with the objective to checkmate the opponent’s king.

  • Time is controlled using a chess clock that has two displays, one for each player’s remaining time.

  • Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-squared bishop and the opponent has a dark-squared one, the transformation
    into a bishops and pawns ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because an endgame with bishops on opposite colors is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of a pawn, or sometimes even with a two-pawn advantage.

  • Movement White moves first, after which players alternate turns, moving one piece per turn, except for castling, when two pieces are moved.

  • • Fifty-move rule: If during the previous 50 moves no pawn has been moved and no capture has been made, either player can claim a draw.

  • There are also several ways a game can end in a draw.

  • Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the game with a small advantage.

  • Traditionally, players have been allowed to agree to a draw at any point in the game, occasionally even without playing a move; in recent years efforts have been made to discourage
    short draws, for example by forbidding draw offers before move thirty.

  • In casual games, it is common to announce “check” when putting the opponent’s king in check, but this is not required by the rules of chess and is usually not done in tournaments.

  • There is no restriction on the piece promoted to, so it is possible to have more pieces of the same type than at the start of the game (e.g., two or more queens).

  • A move that places the opponent’s king in check usually has the notation “+” added.

  • During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors such as the value of the pieces on the board, control of the center and centralization, the pawn structure,
    king safety, and the control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open files, and dark or light squares).

  • End of the game Win A game can be won in the following ways: • Checkmate: The king is in check and the player has no legal move.

  • In competitive games, the piece colors are allocated to players by the organizers; in informal games, the colors are usually decided randomly, for example by a coin toss,
    or by one player concealing a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the other, and having the opponent choose.

  • In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to more than 30 moves.

  • The addition of the seventy-five-move rule in 2014 requires the arbiter to intervene and immediately declare the game drawn after 75 moves without a pawn move or capture,
    without requiring a claim by either player.

  • Tournaments with a small number of players may use the round-robin format, in which every player plays one game against every other player.

  • For example, if only the kings are on the board, all other pieces having been captured, checkmate is impossible, and the game is drawn by this rule.

  • [30] Simple one-move or two-move tactical actions – threats, exchanges of material, and double attacks – can be combined into more complicated sequences of tactical maneuvers
    that are often forced from the point of view of one or both players.

  • In either case, a player’s score is usually calculated as 1 point for each game won and one-half point for each game drawn.

  • These require a performance level approximately 200 Elo rating points below the similarly named open titles, and their continued existence has sometimes been controversial.

  • For this purpose, only algebraic notation is recognized in FIDE-sanctioned events; game scores recorded in a different notation system may not be used as evidence in the event
    of a dispute.

  • There are dozens of different openings, varying widely in character from quiet positional play (for example, the Réti Opening) to very aggressive (the Latvian Gambit).

  • Minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending.

  • On the other hand, if both players still have a knight, there is a highly unlikely yet theoretical possibility of checkmate, so this rule does not apply.

  • Chess strategy concentrates on setting and achieving long-term positioning advantages during the game – for example, where to place different pieces – while tactics concerns
    immediate maneuver.

  • [29] Tactics Main article: Chess tactics In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions – so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player
    or a computer.

  • [1] Draw There are several ways a game can end in a draw: • Stalemate: If the player to move has no legal move, but is not in check, the position is a stalemate, and the game
    is drawn.

  • This can be done only on the turn immediately following the enemy pawn’s two-square advance; otherwise, the right to do so is forfeited.

  • At the end of the game, “1–0” means White won, “0–1” means Black won, and “½–½” indicates a draw.

  • In quiet positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be practical, while in positions with a limited number of forced
    variations, strong players can calculate long sequences of moves.

  • [4][5] • Win on time: In games with a time control, a player wins if the opponent runs out of time, even if the opponent has a superior position, as long as the player has
    a theoretical possibility to checkmate the opponent were the game to continue.

  • It is never legal for a player to make a move that puts or leaves the player’s own king in check.

  • • control of the center: Control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board relatively easily, and can also have a cramping effect on the opponent.

  • If a player’s time runs out before the game is completed, the game is automatically lost (provided the opponent has enough pieces left to deliver checkmate).

  • Usually, the pawn is chosen to be promoted to a queen, but in some cases, another piece is chosen; this is called underpromotion.

  • The addition of the fivefold repetition rule in 2014 requires the arbiter to intervene immediately and declare the game a draw after five occurrences of the same position,
    consecutive or otherwise, without requiring a claim by either player.

  • A common type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players’ skills, is a position where a decisive combination is available and the challenge is to find it.

  • The king is the most valuable piece—attacks on the king must be immediately countered, and if this is impossible, the game is immediately lost (see Check and checkmate below).

  • Intermediate between these are rapid chess games, lasting between one and two hours per game, a popular time control in amateur weekend tournaments.

  • [1] The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent’s king is in check, and there is no legal way to get it out of check.

  • If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece chosen is indicated after the move.

  • Opening theory is concerned with finding the best moves in the initial phase of the game.

  • Setup Initial position, first (bottom) row: rook, knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight, and rook; second row: pawns Setup at the start of a chess game Chess pieces
    are divided into two different colored sets.

  • Until about 1980, the majority of English language chess publications used descriptive notation, in which files are identified by the initial letter of the piece that occupies
    the first rank at the beginning of the game.

  • There are several known endgames where it is possible to force a mate but it requires more than 50 moves before a pawn move or capture is made; examples include some endgames
    with two knights against a pawn and some pawnless endgames such as queen against two bishops.

  • [1] • Draw by resignation: Under FIDE Laws, a game is drawn if a player resigns and no sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate that player.

  • A move in response to a check is legal only if it results in a position where the king is no longer in check.

  • One of the goals of early computer scientists was to create a chess-playing machine.

  • [34] The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually, pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about
    five points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop or knight being known as the exchange), and queens about nine points.

  • A typical time control is 50 days for every 10 moves.

  • Promotion Main article: Promotion (chess) When a pawn advances to its eighth rank, as part of the move, it is promoted and must be exchanged for the player’s choice of queen,
    rook, bishop, or knight of the same color.

  • Variations such as “football scoring” (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw) may be used by tournament organizers, but ratings are always calculated on the basis of standard
    scoring.

  • • A queen combines the power of a rook and bishop and can move any number of squares along a rank, file, or diagonal, but cannot leap over other pieces.

  • [1] The duration of a game ranges from long (or “classical”) games, which can take up to seven hours (even longer if adjournments are permitted), to bullet chess (under 3
    minutes per player for the entire game).

  • [32] Strategy Main article: Chess strategy Chess strategy is concerned with the evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for future play.

  • Moving is compulsory; a player may not skip a turn, even when having to move is detrimental.

  • The term “match” refers not to an individual game, but to either a series of games between two players, or a team competition in which each player of one team plays one game
    against a player of the other team.

  • Opening Main article: Chess opening A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the “opening moves”).

  • • A rook can move any number of squares along a rank or file, but cannot leap over other pieces.

  • The recorded history of chess goes back at least to the emergence of a similar game, chaturanga, in seventh-century India.

  • In this situation, either player can claim a draw; this requires the players to keep a valid written record of the game so that the claim can be verified by the arbiter if
    challenged.

  • The dead position rule supersedes the previous rule which referred to “insufficient material”, extending it to include other positions where checkmate is impossible, such
    as blocked pawn endings where the pawns cannot be attacked.

  • an interesting move that may not be best; or “?!”

  • [1] Time control A digital chess clock In competition, chess games are played with a time control.

  • Today, chess is one of the world’s most popular games, played by millions of people worldwide.

  • The game is played on a square board of eight rows (called ranks) and eight columns (called files).

  • Chess sets come in a wide variety of styles; for competition, the Staunton pattern is preferred.

  • These two aspects of the gameplay cannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostly achieved through tactics, while the tactical opportunities are based on
    the previous strategy of play.

 

Works Cited

[‘The fifty-move rule is not applied at FICGS.[6]
2. ^ “FIDE Ratings and Statistics”. ratings.fide.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
3. ^ At that time the Spanish word would have been written axedrez.
The Spanish “x” was pronounced as English “sh”, as the Portuguese “x” still is today. The spelling of ajedrez changed after Spanish lost the “sh” sound.
4. ^ The allegorical poem Scachs d’amor, the first to describe a modern game, is probably from
1475.[65][66]
5. ^ This is stated in The Encyclopaedia of Chess (1970, p. 223) by Anne Sunnucks, but is disputed by Edward Winter (chess historian) in his Chess Notes 5144 and 5152.
6. ^ Chess is even called the “drosophila” of cognitive psychology
and artificial intelligence (AI) studies, because it represents the domain in which expert performance has been most intensively studied and measured.[143]
7. ^ Alan Turing made an attempt in 1953.[171]
8. ^ In 2008 FIDE added Chess960 rules to
an appendix of the Handbook.[184] This section is now classified under “Guidelines”,[1] indicating that the rules presented do not have the weight of FIDE law.
9. “Fide Laws of Chess taking effect from 1 January 2023”. FIDE. Archived from the original
on 1 January 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
10. ^ United States Chess Federation. (2003). U.S. Chess Federation’s official rules of chess. Just, Tim., Burg, Daniel B. (5th ed.). New York. ISBN 0-8129-3559-4. OCLC 52859422.
11. ^ Burgess (2000),
p. 481
12. ^ David Brine Pritchard (6 November 2008) [1950]. The Right Way to Play Chess. Updated by Richard James (2008 revised ed.). Right Way. ISBN 978-0-7160-2199-5.
13. ^ Jack Peters (18 May 2001). “Why Grandmasters Rarely Checkmate”. The
Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
14. ^ “50 moves rules”. FICGS. Archived from the original on 9 February 2010. Retrieved 1 December 2009.
15. ^ See paragraph “C. Algebraic notation”
in FIDE Laws of Chess[1]
16. ^ Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 92
17. ^ “FIDE – Affiliated organizations”. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
18. ^ “Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations”.
International Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
19. ^ Jump up to:a b “Ding Liren defeats Ian Nepomniachtchi to win World Chess Championship – live”. MSN. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
20. ^
“Women’s World Championship 2020 – Ju wins tiebreak”. chessbase.com. 24 January 2020. Archived from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
21. ^ “Carlsen with record-breaking lead”. ChessBase News. 1 January 2013. Archived
from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
22. ^ Jump up to:a b c “FIDE Handbook”. FIDE. Archived from the original on 8 January 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
23. ^ Section “01. International Title Regulations (Qualification
Commission)” in FIDE Handbook[14]
24. ^ Section “06. Regulations for the Titles of Arbiters” in FIDE Handbook[14]
25. ^ Section “07. Regulations for the Titles of Trainers” in FIDE Handbook[14]
26. ^ Murray (1913), p. 25
27. ^ Jump up to:a
b Hooper, David; Whyld, Kenneth (1992). The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-19-866164-1.
28. ^ “- Special Chess Records”. Chess Daily News by Susan Polgar. 11 February 2008. Archived from the original on 29
December 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
29. ^ “Chess and draughts collection – Koninklijke Bibliotheek”. kb.nl. Archived from the original on 2 June 2015.
30. ^ Hooper, David; Whyld, Kenneth (1992). The Oxford Companion to Chess (2 ed.). Oxford
University Press. pp. 461–480. ISBN 0-19-280049-3.
31. ^ Tamburro (2010), p. 18
32. ^ Tarrasch (1987)
33. ^ Evans (1958), p. 175
34. ^ Harding (2003), pp. 32–151
35. ^ Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 86
36. ^ Silman (1998), pp. 202–05
37. ^
Emms (2004), p. 90.
38. ^ Harding (2003), pp. 8ff
39. ^ Jump up to:a b Harding (2003), pp. 70ff
40. ^ Burgess, Nunn, & Emms (2004), pp. 14–15
41. ^ “Siegbert Tarrasch vs. Max Euwe, Bad Pistyan it, CZE 1922”. Chessgames.com. Archived from the
original on 10 January 2009.
42. ^ Harding (2003), pp. 1–7
43. ^ Lasker (1934), p. 73
44. ^ Watson (1998), p. 163ff
45. ^ Harding (2003), pp. 138ff
46. ^ Evans (1958), pp. 22–67
47. ^ Harding (2003), pp. 187ff
48. ^ Eder, Manfred A.
J. (2010). South Asian Archaeology 2007 Proceedings of the 19th Meeting of the European Association of South Asian Archaeology in Ravenna, Italy, July 2007, Volume II (PDF). Archaeopress Archaeology. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-4073-0674-2. Archived (PDF) from
the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
49. ^ Bakker, Hans T. (2017). The Huns in Central and South Asia. How Two Centuries of War against Nomadic Invaders from the Steps are Concluded by a Game of Chess between the Kings of
India and Iran. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
50. ^ Panaino, Antonio (1999). La novella degli scacchi e della tavola reale. Milano: Mimesis. ISBN 88-87231-26-5.
51. ^ Andreas Bock-Raming, The Gaming Board
in Indian Chess and Related Board Games: a terminological investigation, Board Games Studies 2, 1999
52. ^ Warner (2000), pp. 381
53. ^ Murray (1913), pp. 169–174
54. ^ Trautmann (2015), pp. 117
55. ^ Mark (1996), pp. 138
56. ^ Fine (2015),
pp. 3
57. ^ Leibs (2004), p. 92
58. ^ Murray (1913), pp. 26–27, 51–52
59. ^ “A critical review of: “The Beginnings of Chess””. Jean-Louis Cazaux. 8 August 2012. Archived from the original on 8 August 2021. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
60. ^ “Ashtapada”.
Jean-Louis Cazaux. 25 July 2005. Archived from the original on 25 July 2017. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
61. ^ Eiland, Murray (2013). “Some Problems of Islamic Heraldry”. The Armiger’s News. 35 (2): 1–5. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023.
Retrieved 27 December 2022 – via academia.edu.
62. ^ Murray (1913), p. 163
63. ^ Harper, Douglas; Dan McCormack. “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
64. ^ Peter Banaschak, Facts
on the origin of Chinese chess (Xiangqi), 4th Symposium of the Initiative Gruppe Königstein, Wiesbaden, August 1997
65. ^ Png Hau Cheng, Jim (2016). Understanding the Elephant, Part 1: History of Xiangqi. New Taipei City. ISBN 978-957-43-3998-3.
66. ^
Li (1998)
67. ^ Banaschak, Peter. “A story well told is not necessarily true: a critical assessment of David H. Li’s The Genealogy of Chess”. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013.
68. ^ Cazaux, Jean-Louis; Knowlton, Rick (2017). A World
of Chess, Its Development and Variations through Centuries and Civilisations. McFarland. pp. 334–353 (The origins of chess, approaching the question from several angles). ISBN 9-780786-494279.
69. ^ Freeman Fahid, Deborah (2018). Chess and other
games pieces from Islamic Lands. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-97092-8.
70. ^ Hooper & Whyld (1992), pp. 173–75
71. ^ Murray (1913), pp. 457–459
72. ^ Murray (1913), p. 777
73. ^ “Francesco di Castellvi vs. Narciso Vinyoles (1475)
“Old in Chess””. Chessgames.com. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
74. ^ Negri, Sergio Ernesto (16 March 2020). “Scachs d’amor: The poem that first portrayed the modern rules of chess”. ChessBase. Archived
from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
75. ^ Davidson (1949), pp. 13–17
76. ^ Jump up to:a b Calvo, Ricardo (1998). “Valencia Spain: The Cradle of European Chess” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 January 2016.
Retrieved 3 March 2015.
77. ^ Yalom (2004)
78. ^ Weissberger (2004), pp. 152ff
79. ^ Jump up to:a b Alex, Crisovan (1989). 1889-1989 : 100 Jahre Schweizerischer Schachverband: 100 ans de fdration suisse des checs (in Italian). Verlag Zrcher.
p. 54. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
80. ^ “Louis Charles Mahe De La Bourdonnais”. Chessgames.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2008. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
81. ^ Metzner (1998)
82. ^
Bird, Henry Edward (January 2004). Chess History and Reminiscences (10 ed.). Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 24 September 2009. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
83. ^ David Shenk (2007). The Immortal Game: A History of Chess. Knopf Doubleday.
p. 99. ISBN 9780385510103.
84. ^ Landsberger, Kurt William Steinitz, Chess Champion McFarland & Company 1992 ISBN 0-89950-758-1
85. ^ René Gralla (19 November 2006). “XiangQi – an alternate to Western Chess”. ChessBase.com. Archived from the original
on 4 June 2011.
86. ^ Gralla, René (2 January 2005). “Kramnik plays Makruk Thai”. The Chess Variant Pages. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
87. ^ “London Chess Club”. Chessgames.com. Archived from the original
on 25 December 2008. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
88. ^ Parr, Larry. “London, 1851”. World Chess Network. Archived from the original on 4 October 2003. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
89. ^ Hartston (1985), p. 36
90. ^ Burgess, Nunn, & Emms (2004)
p. 14
91. ^ Shibut (2004)
92. ^ Kasparov (2003a), p. 6
93. ^ Kasparov (2003a), p. 11
94. ^ Kasparov (1983a), p. 117
95. ^ “Vera Menchik”. Chessgames.com. Archived from the original on 26 October 2008. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
96. ^
Kasparov (1983b), p. 9
97. ^ Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 178
98. ^ Hudson, Michael Andrew (2013). Storming Fortresses: A Political History Of Chess In The Soviet Union, 1917-1948 (Thesis). UC Santa Cruz. Archived from the original on 25 April 2021.
Retrieved 19 April 2021.
99. ^ “The match of the century”. Adam Smith Institute. Archived from the original on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
100. ^ Kasparov (2003b), pp. 7–8
101. ^ Kasparov (2003b), p. 7
102. ^ Pete (Pete).
“The 12 Most Interesting Chess Players Ever”. Chess.com. Archived from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
103. ^ Kasparov (2004a), pp. 5–6; Kasparov (2003b), p. 8
104. ^ “How chess became a pawn in Russia’s political war
games”. Wired UK. ISSN 1357-0978. Archived from the original on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
105. ^ Kasparov (2004b), pp. 5–6
106. ^ Kasparov (2003a), p. 8
107. ^ Kasparov (2004b), pp. 5–6; Kasparov (2006), pp. 5–6
108. ^
Keene (1993), p. 16
109. ^ “Endgame tablebases: A short history”. ChessBase News. 16 March 2018. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
110. ^ McClain, Dylan Loeb (14 March 2010). “Wherever You Are, a Game Is Just
a Point and Click Away”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
111. ^ Thomson, Adam (7 October 2015). “Internet helps to speed up growth of chess around the world”. Financial Times. Archived
from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
112. ^ “‘It’s electrifying’: chess world hails Queen’s Gambit-fuelled boom”. The Guardian. 29 November 2020. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
113. ^
Dottle, Rachael. “The Chess Boom Goes Digital After ‘The Queen’s Gambit'”. Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
114. ^ Team (CHESScom), Chess com. “About Online Chess Cheating”. Chess.com. Archived
from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
115. ^ Waters, Richard (12 January 2018). “Techmate: How AI rewrote the rules of chess | Financial Times”. Financial Times. Archived from the original on 17 March 2021. Retrieved 13 May
2021.
116. ^ Stiller, pp. 68–113
117. ^ See also: L. B. Stiller (1991). “Some Results from a Massively Parallel Retrograde Analysis”. ICCA Journal.
118. ^ Convekta Ltd. “Lomonosov Endgame Tablebases”. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013.
Retrieved 20 April 2021.
119. ^ Campitelli, Guillermo. “How computers changed chess”. The Conversation. Archived from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
120. ^ “Big Techday 9 – TNG Technology Consulting – Modern Chess Preparation
– The Role of Computers in professional Chess”. media.techcast.cloud. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
121. ^ Brookwell, Ilya. “Chess is taking over the online video game world – and both are changing from this
unlikely pairing”. The Conversation. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
122. ^ “The Big Story”. Protocol — The people, power and politics of tech. 23 February 2021. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021.
Retrieved 20 April 2021.
123. ^ Statt, Nick (27 August 2020). “Esports giant TSM signs Hikaru Nakamura, its first pro chess player”. The Verge. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
124. ^ “SuperNationals VI is
the Largest Rated Tourney Ever”, Chess Life Online, 13 May 2017, archived from the original on 29 April 2021, retrieved 8 May 2018
125. ^ Regan, Kenneth; Haworth, Guy (4 August 2011). “Intrinsic Chess Ratings”. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference
on Artificial Intelligence. 25 (1): 834–839. doi:10.1609/aaai.v25i1.7951. ISSN 2374-3468. S2CID 15489049. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2021.
126. ^ “Kramnik beats Kasparov, 2000”. CNN. 2 November 2000. Archived
from the original on 28 January 2006. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
127. ^ “Vladimir Kramnik”. Chessgames.com. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
128. ^ “Viswanathan Anand regains world chess title”. Reuters.
30 September 2007. Archived from the original on 26 December 2007. Retrieved 13 December 2007.
129. ^ Vale (2001), pp. 170–99
130. ^ Count Bladessar Castilio (1900) [1561]. Walter Raleigh (ed.). The Second Book of the Courtier. Translated by Sir
Thomas Hoby. London: David Nutt. Archived from the original on 18 August 2000. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
131. ^ Olmert (1996), p. 127
132. ^ “§3. The First Book printed in English—”The Recuyell of the Histories of Troy”. XIII. The Introduction of
Printing into England and the Early Work of the Press. Vol. 2. The End of the Middle Ages. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature: An Encyclopedia in Eighteen Volumes. 1907–21″. www.bartleby.com. Archived from the original on 15
August 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
133. ^ Adams (2006)
134. ^ Caxton, William (January 2004). The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 24 September 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
135. ^ “Carmina
potoria”. Bibliotheca Augustana. Archived from the original on 29 December 2007. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
136. ^ “CHESS – JewishEncyclopedia.com”. www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2022. Retrieved 29 December
2022.
137. ^ Murray (1913), pp. 166–7, p. 410
138. ^ Shaheen, Kareem (21 January 2016). “Chess forbidden in Islam, rules Saudi mufti, but issue not black and white”. The Guardian. Archived from the original on 13 February 2016. Retrieved 1 April
2019.
139. ^ Franklin (1779)
140. ^ Thompson, Clive (22 May 2014). “Why Chess Will Destroy Your Mind”. Medium. Archived from the original on 1 September 2017.
141. ^ Geigner, Timothy (20 June 2014). “That Time When People Thought Playing Chess
Would Make You Violent”. TechDirt. Archived from the original on 24 March 2017.
142. ^ “National Scholastic Chess Foundation”. Archived from the original on 30 December 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2009.
143. ^ Kraaijeveld (2000). “Origin of chess–a
phylogenetic perspective” (PDF). Board Games Studies. 3: 39–50. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
144. ^ Ruthann Mayes-Elma (2006). Females and Harry Potter: Not All that Empowering. Rowman & Littlefield.
pp. 95–. ISBN 978-0-7425-3779-8. Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
145. ^ John Tromp (2021). “Chess Position Ranking”. GitHub. Archived from the original on 8 August 2021.
146. ^ Babb, Jonathan (10 January
1996). “Evolution of the Chess Robot: Brute force Wins”. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
147. ^ “The biggest Number of simultaneous possible legal Moves”. ChessBox.de. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007.
148. ^ Zermelo, Ernst (1913),
Uber eine Anwendung der Mengenlehre auf die Theorie des Schachspiels, Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Mathematicians 2, 501–04. Cited from Eichhorn, Christoph: Der Beginn der Formalen Spieltheorie: Zermelo (1913), Uni-Muenchen.de
Archived 12 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 23 March 2007.
149. ^ “Fundamentals”. gap-system.org. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011.
150. ^ “Games”. Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology: Volume 8. CRC Press. 1977.
p. 394. ISBN 978-0-8247-2258-6.
151. ^ Grabner, Stern, & Neubauer (2007) pp. 398–420
152. ^ De Groot & Gobet (1996)
153. ^ Gobet, de Voogt, & Retschitzki (2004)
154. ^ Holding (1985)
155. ^ Saariluoma (1995)
156. ^ Binet (1894)
157. ^
Robbins (1996), pp. 83–93
158. ^ de Groot (1946)
159. ^ Richards J. Heuer Jr. Psychology of Intelligence Analysis Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency 1999 (see Chapter 3 Archived 12 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine).
160. ^
“Freakonomics”. Freakonomics. Archived from the original on 28 December 2022. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
161. ^ Macnamara, Brooke N.; Maitra, Megha (21 August 2019). “The role of deliberate practice in expert performance: revisiting Ericsson, Krampe
& Tesch-Römer (1993)”. Royal Society Open Science. 6 (8): 190327. doi:10.1177/0963721411421922. PMC 6731745. PMID 31598236. S2CID 190327.
162. ^ Jump up to:a b Gobet, F. & Chassy, P. (in press). “Season of birth and chess expertise” (PDF). Archived
(PDF) from the original on 18 July 2011. (65.8 KB) Journal of Biosocial Science.
Gobet, F. & Campitelli, G. (2007). “The role of domain-specific practice, handedness and starting age in chess” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2007.
(196 KB) Developmental Psychology, 43, 159–72. Both retrieved 2007-07-15.
163. ^ Djakow, I. N., Petrowski, N. W., & Rudik, P. A. (1927). Psychologie des schachspiels.
164. ^ Burgoyne, Alexander P.; Sala, Giovanni; Gobet, Fernand; MacNamara, Brooke
N.; Campitelli, Guillermo; Hambrick, David Z. (1 November 2016). “The relationship between cognitive ability and chess skill: A comprehensive meta-analysis” (PDF). Intelligence. 59: 72–83. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2016.08.002. ISSN 0160-2896. Archived
(PDF) from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
165. ^ Campitelli, Guillermo; Gobet, Fernand (5 October 2011). “Deliberate Practice: Necessary But Not Sufficient”. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 20 (5): 280–285.
doi:10.1177/0963721411421922. S2CID 145572294.
166. ^ de la Villa (2008), pp. 179–80
167. ^ Howard (1961)
168. ^ Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 110
169. ^ Hooper & Whyld (1992), pp. 400–01
170. ^ Weenink (1926)
171. ^ Jump up to:a b Ruiter,
Chananya De (16 November 2020). “The Queen’s Gambit And A Rise In Online Chess Playing”. Tatler Thailand. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
172. ^ Jump up to:a b Jibilian, Isabella. “Netflix’s hit show ‘The
Queen’s Gambit’ inspired a chess surge — but now Chess.com is seeing a surge in cheating, too”. Business Insider. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
173. ^ Howell, Toby. “Netflix’s ‘The Queen’s Gambit’
is Causing a Surge in Online Chess Play”. Morning Brew. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
174. ^ Settembre, Jeanette (9 November 2020). “Online chess classes see record interest amid pandemic, and after release
of Netflix’s ‘The Queen’s Gambit'”. Fox News. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
175. ^ Rothman, David. “Online chess makes its biggest move”. www.cbsnews.com. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021.
Retrieved 10 January 2021.
176. ^ Robertson, Noah (20 August 2020). “Online chess is thriving, a calming constant in a chaotic year”. Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 11 January 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
177. ^ Levitt
(2000)
178. ^ Hsu, F.H. (2004). Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11818-5
179. ^ Alan Turing. “Digital computers applied to games”. University of Southampton
and King’s College Cambridge. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008.
180. ^ Shannon, Claude E. XXII. Programming a Computer for Playing Chess. Philosophical Magazine, Ser. 7, Vol. 41, No. 314 – March 1950. Available online at “computerhistory.org”
(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2010. (175 KB) Retrieved 6 December 2006.
181. ^ Hsu (2002), pp. 295–96
182. ^ Deep Blue – Kasparov Match Archived 2 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine. research.ibm.com. Retrieved 30 November 2006.
183. ^
Finley, Klint (28 September 2012). “Did a Computer Bug Help Deep Blue Beat Kasparov?”. Wired. Archived from the original on 15 May 2018. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
184. ^ Crowther, Mark. “Hiarcs 13 wins Copa Mercosur”. The Week in Chess. Archived from
the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
185. ^ Siegel, Robert (24 October 2016). “20 Years Later, Humans Still No Match For Computers On The Chessboard”. NPR.org. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 11
March 2021.
186. ^ Kosteniuk, Alexandra (15 August 2013). “TCEC Computer Chess Championship New Season starts August 26th”. Chess News Blog. Archived from the original on 25 October 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
187. ^ Soltis, Andy (9 June
2013). “Engine Super Bowl”. New York Post. Archived from the original on 3 May 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
188. ^ Roeder, Oliver (25 January 2022). “We Taught Computers To Play Chess — And Then They Left Us Behind”. Fivethirtyeight. Archived
from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
189. ^ McClain, Dylan Loeb (8 August 2006). “Cheating Accusations in Mental Sports, Too”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 December 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2010.
190. ^
Pritchard (2000), p. 8
191. ^ Pritchard details 1,450 of them in Pritchard, D.B. (1994). The Encyclopedia of Chess Variants. Games & Puzzles Publications. ISBN 978-0-9524142-0-9. “Of these, about half date from between 700 and 1970 (1,200 years!),
half from the last quarter of the twentieth century.” Parlett (1999), p. 312
192. ^ “Laws Historic”. aekphotography.co.uk. Archived from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
193. ^ “Western culture regards Chess as a particular
game with a particular set of rules governed by an international authority (FIDE – the Fédération Internationale des Echecs). Variously known as International Chess, World Chess, Orthochess, and so on […]” Parlett (1999), p. 276
194. ^ Schmittberger,
R. Wayne (1992). New Rules for Classic Games. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-471-53621-5. The form of chess most people know – which is sometimes referred to as Western chess, orthodox chess, or orthochess – is itself just one of many that
have been played throughout history.
Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/charleylhasa/8681825637/’]

 

‘