Condensed matter physics

 

  • [7] According to the founding director of the Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, physics professor Manuel Cardona, it was Albert Einstein who created the modern field of condensed matter physics starting with his seminal 1905 article on the photoelectric effect and photoluminescence which opened the fields of photoelectron spectroscopy and photoluminescence spectroscopy, and later his 1907 article on the specific heat of solids which introduced, for the first time, the effect of lattice vibrations on the thermodynamic properties of crystals, in particular the specific heat.

  • [6] Drude’s model described properties of metals in terms of a gas of free electrons, and was the first microscopic model to explain empirical observations such as the Wiedemann–Franz law.

  • [35] After World War II, several ideas from quantum field theory were applied to condensed matter problems.

  • [31]: 1–2  However, the first modern studies of magnetism only started with the development of electrodynamics by Faraday, Maxwell and others in the nineteenth century, which included classifying materials as ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic based on their response to magnetization.

  • Condensed matter physicists seek to understand the behavior of these phases by experiments to measure various material properties, and by applying the physical laws of quantum mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, and other physics theories to develop mathematical models and predict the properties of extremely large groups of atoms.

  • [9]
    Etymology
    According to physicist Philip Warren Anderson, the use of the term “condensed matter” to designate a field of study was coined by him and Volker Heine, when they changed the name of their group at the Cavendish Laboratories, Cambridge, from Solid state theory to Theory of Condensed Matter in 1967,[10] as they felt it better included their interest in liquids, nuclear matter, and so on.

  • [16] Shortly after, in 1869, Irish chemist Thomas Andrews studied the phase transition from a liquid to a gas and coined the term critical point to describe the condition where a gas and a liquid were indistinguishable as phases,[19] and Dutch physicist Johannes van der Waals supplied the theoretical framework which allowed the prediction of critical behavior based on measurements at much higher temperatures.

  • [3] These include solid state and soft matter physicists, who study quantum and non-quantum physical properties of matter respectively.

  • [13] The name “condensed matter physics” emphasized the commonality of scientific problems encountered by physicists working on solids, liquids, plasmas, and other complex matter, whereas “solid state physics” was often associated with restricted industrial applications of metals and semiconductors.

  • [1]

    The diversity of systems and phenomena available for study makes condensed matter physics the most active field of contemporary physics: one third of all American physicists self-identify as condensed matter physicists,[2] and the Division of Condensed Matter Physics is the largest division of the American Physical Society.

  • [36] Eventually in 1956, John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer developed the so-called BCS theory of superconductivity, based on the discovery that arbitrarily small attraction between two electrons of opposite spin mediated by phonons in the lattice can give rise to a bound state called a Cooper pair.

  • Shortly after, Sommerfeld incorporated the Fermi–Dirac statistics into the free electron model and made it better to explain the heat capacity.

  • Soviet physicist Lev Landau used the idea for the Fermi liquid theory wherein low energy properties of interacting fermion systems were given in terms of what are now termed Landau-quasiparticles.

  • [37]
    The study of phase transitions and the critical behavior of observables, termed critical phenomena, was a major field of interest in the 1960s.

  • [28] This phenomenon, arising due to the nature of charge carriers in the conductor, came to be termed the Hall effect, but it was not properly explained at the time because the electron was not experimentally discovered until 18 years later.

  • [48] A satisfactory theoretical description of high-temperature superconductors is still not known and the field of strongly correlated materials continues to be an active research topic.

  • After the advent of quantum mechanics, Lev Landau in 1930 developed the theory of Landau quantization and laid the foundation for a theoretical explanation of the quantum Hall effect which was discovered half a century later.

  • [8] Deputy Director of the Yale Quantum Institute A. Douglas Stone makes a similar priority case for Einstein in his work on the synthetic history of quantum mechanics.

  • [25] Albert Einstein, in 1922, said regarding contemporary theories of superconductivity that “with our far-reaching ignorance of the quantum mechanics of composite systems we are very far from being able to compose a theory out of these vague ideas.

  • [23]: 366–368

    The mathematics of crystal structures developed by Auguste Bravais, Yevgraf Fyodorov and others was used to classify crystals by their symmetry group, and tables of crystal structures were the basis for the series International Tables of Crystallography, first published in 1935.

  • Around the 1960s, the study of physical properties of liquids was added to this list, forming the basis for the more comprehensive specialty of condensed matter physics.

  • [21][22]: 27–29  However, despite the success of Drude’s model, it had one notable problem: it was unable to correctly explain the electronic contribution to the specific heat and magnetic properties of metals, and the temperature dependence of resistivity at low temperatures.

  • [31] In 1906, Pierre Weiss introduced the concept of magnetic domains to explain the main properties of ferromagnets.

  • Two years later, Bloch used quantum mechanics to describe the motion of an electron in a periodic lattice.

  • [42] The study of topological properties of the fractional Hall effect remains an active field of research.

  • Using this idea, he developed the theory of paramagnetism in 1926.

  • For example, in the introduction to his 1947 book Kinetic Theory of Liquids,[15] Yakov Frenkel proposed that “The kinetic theory of liquids must accordingly be developed as a generalization and extension of the kinetic theory of solid bodies.

  • a strongly correlated electron material, it is expected that the existence of a topological Dirac surface state in this material would lead to a topological insulator with strong electronic correlations.

  • [43] Decades later, the aforementioned topological band theory advanced by David J. Thouless and collaborators[44] was further expanded leading to the discovery of topological insulators.

  • [67] Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a method by which external magnetic fields are used to find resonance modes of individual nuclei, thus giving information about the atomic, molecular, and bond structure of their environment.

  • [74]
    Applications
    Research in condensed matter physics[43][75] has given rise to several device applications, such as the development of the semiconductor transistor,[6] laser technology,[61] magnetic storage, liquid crystals, optical fibres[76] and several phenomena studied in the context of nanotechnology.

  • [68]: 69 [69]: 185  Quantum oscillations is another experimental method where high magnetic fields are used to study material properties such as the geometry of the Fermi surface.

  • [61] : 258–259
    External magnetic fields
    In experimental condensed matter physics, external magnetic fields act as thermodynamic variables that control the state, phase transitions and properties of material systems.

  • [77]: 111ff  Methods such as scanning-tunneling microscopy can be used to control processes at the nanometer scale, and have given rise to the study of nanofabrication.

  • [22]: 90–91  This classical model was then improved by Arnold Sommerfeld who incorporated the Fermi–Dirac statistics of electrons and was able to explain the anomalous behavior of the specific heat of metals in the Wiedemann–Franz law.

  • [37][43] For example, a range of phenomena related to high temperature superconductivity are understood poorly, although the microscopic physics of individual electrons and lattices is well known.

  • [57][58]

    Goldstone’s theorem in quantum field theory states that in a system with broken continuous symmetry, there may exist excitations with arbitrarily low energy, called the Goldstone bosons.

  • Cold atoms in optical lattices are used as quantum simulators, that is, they act as controllable systems that can model behavior of more complicated systems, such as frustrated magnets.

  • Near the critical point, systems undergo critical behavior, wherein several of their properties such as correlation length, specific heat, and magnetic susceptibility diverge exponentially.

  • For other types of systems that involves short range interactions near the critical point, a better theory is needed.

  • To solve this problem, several promising approaches are proposed in condensed matter physics, including Josephson junction qubits, spintronic qubits using the spin orientation of magnetic materials, and the topological non-Abelian anyons from fractional quantum Hall effect states.

  • Visible light has energy on the scale of 1 electron volt (eV) and is used as a scattering probe to measure variations in material properties such as the dielectric constant and refractive index.

  • The density functional theory has been widely used since the 1970s for band structure calculations of variety of solids.

  • Understanding the behavior of quantum phase transition is important in the difficult tasks of explaining the properties of rare-earth magnetic insulators, high-temperature superconductors, and other substances.

  • Here, the different quantum phases of the system refer to distinct ground states of the Hamiltonian matrix.

  • However, it can only roughly explain continuous phase transition for ferroelectrics and type I superconductors which involves long range microscopic interactions.

  • Theoretical models have also been developed to study the physics of phase transitions, such as the Ginzburg–Landau theory, critical exponents and the use of mathematical methods of quantum field theory and the renormalization group.

  • The methods, together with powerful computer simulation, contribute greatly to the explanation of the critical phenomena associated with continuous phase transition.

  • [70] High magnetic fields will be useful in experimental testing of the various theoretical predictions such as the quantized magnetoelectric effect, image magnetic monopole, and the half-integer quantum Hall effect.

  • These methods are suitable to study defects, diffusion, phase transitions and magnetic order.

  • Emergence
    Theoretical understanding of condensed matter physics is closely related to the notion of emergence, wherein complex assemblies of particles behave in ways dramatically different from their individual constituents.

  • X-rays have energies of the order of 10 keV and hence are able to probe atomic length scales, and are used to measure variations in electron charge density and crystal structure.

  • The method involves using optical lasers to form an interference pattern, which acts as a lattice, in which ions or atoms can be placed at very low temperatures.

  • In quantum phase transitions, the temperature is set to absolute zero, and the non-thermal control parameter, such as pressure or magnetic field, causes the phase transitions when order is destroyed by quantum fluctuations originating from the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

  • Electronic theory of solids
    The metallic state has historically been an important building block for studying properties of solids.

  • [61]: 11
    Experimental
    Experimental condensed matter physics involves the use of experimental probes to try to discover new properties of materials.

 

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