• The steps required in a microarray experiment Uses and types Many types of arrays exist and the broadest distinction is whether they are spatially arranged on a surface or
  on coded beads: • The traditional solid-phase array is a collection of orderly microscopic “spots”, called features, each with thousands of identical and specific probes attached to a solid surface, such as glass, plastic or silicon biochip
  (commonly known as a genome chip, DNA chip or gene array).

• One technique used to produce oligonucleotide arrays include photolithographic synthesis (Affymetrix) on a silica substrate where light and light-sensitive masking agents
  are used to “build” a sequence one nucleotide at a time across the entire array.

• [32] Other methods permit analysis of data consisting of a low number of biological or technical replicates; for example, the Local Pooled Error (LPE) test pools standard
  deviations of genes with similar expression levels in an effort to compensate for insufficient replication.

• • Hypothesis-driven statistical analysis: Identification of statistically significant changes in gene expression are commonly identified using the t-test, ANOVA, Bayesian
  method[27]Mann–Whitney test methods tailored to microarray data sets, which take into account multiple comparisons[28] or cluster analysis.

• Although absolute levels of gene expression may be determined in the two-color array in rare instances, the relative differences in expression among different spots within
  a sample and between samples is the preferred method of data analysis for the two-color system.

• Microarrays and bioinformatics The advent of inexpensive microarray experiments created several specific bioinformatics challenges:[citation needed] the multiple levels of
  replication in experimental design (Experimental design); the number of platforms and independent groups and data format (Standardization); the statistical treatment of the data (Data analysis); mapping each probe to the mRNA transcript that
  it measures (Annotation); the sheer volume of data and the ability to share it (Data warehousing).

• In single-channel microarrays or one-color microarrays, the arrays provide intensity data for each probe or probe set indicating a relative level of hybridization with the
  labeled target.

• Suppose samples need to be compared: then the number of experiments required using the two channel arrays quickly becomes unfeasible, unless a sample is used as a reference.

• One strength of the single-dye system lies in the fact that an aberrant sample cannot affect the raw data derived from other samples, because each array chip is exposed to
  only one sample (as opposed to a two-color system in which a single low-quality sample may drastically impinge on overall data precision even if the other sample was of high quality).

• These can be a short section of a gene or other DNA element that are used to hybridize a cDNA or cRNA (also called anti-sense RNA) sample (called target) under high-stringency
  conditions.

• [30] • Dimensional reduction: Analysts often reduce the number of dimensions (genes) prior to data analysis.

• Various grass-roots open-source projects are trying to ease the exchange and analysis of data produced with non-proprietary chips: For example, the “Minimum Information About
  a Microarray Experiment” (MIAME) checklist helps define the level of detail that should exist and is being adopted by many journals as a requirement for the submission of papers incorporating microarray results.

• [29] These methods assess statistical power based on the variation present in the data and the number of experimental replicates, and can help minimize Type I and type II
  errors in the analyses.

• • Network-based methods: Statistical methods that take the underlying structure of gene networks into account, representing either associative or causative interactions or
  dependencies among gene products.

• Examples of unsupervised analyses methods include self-organizing maps, neural gas, k-means cluster analyses,[24] hierarchical cluster analysis, Genomic Signal Processing
  based clustering and model-based cluster analysis.

• see MA plot), and log-transformation of ratios, global or local normalization of intensity ratios, and segmentation into different copy number regions using step detection
  algorithms.

• [23] This type of approach is not hypothesis-driven, but rather is based on iterative pattern recognition or statistical learning methods to find an “optimal” number of clusters
  in the data.

• Scientists use DNA microarrays to measure the expression levels of large numbers of genes simultaneously or to genotype multiple regions of a genome.

• Sequences may be longer (60-mer probes such as the Agilent design) or shorter (25-mer probes produced by Affymetrix) depending on the desired purpose; longer probes are more
  specific to individual target genes, shorter probes may be spotted in higher density across the array and are cheaper to manufacture.

• It is also used for the identification of structural variations and the measurement of gene expression.

• The resulting “grid” of probes represents the nucleic acid profiles of the prepared probes and is ready to receive complementary cDNA or cRNA “targets” derived from experimental
  or clinical samples.

• Input data for class prediction are usually based on filtered lists of genes which are predictive of class, determined using classical hypothesis tests (next section), Gini
  diversity index, or information gain (entropy).

• [18] This is an example of a DNA microarray experiment which includes details for a particular case to better explain DNA microarray experiments, while listing modifications
  for RNA or other alternative experiments.

• Another benefit is that data are more easily compared to arrays from different experiments as long as batch effects have been accounted for.

• Data analysis[edit] National Center for Toxicological Research scientist reviews microarray data Main article: Microarray analysis techniques See also: Gene chip analysis
  Microarray data sets are commonly very large, and analytical precision is influenced by a number of variables.

• Oligonucleotide arrays are produced by printing short oligonucleotide sequences designed to represent a single gene or family of gene splice-variants by synthesizing this
  sequence directly onto the array surface instead of depositing intact sequences.

• [22] • Class discovery analysis: This analytic approach, sometimes called unsupervised classification or knowledge discovery, tries to identify whether microarrays (objects,
  patients, mice, etc.)

• During knowledge discovery analysis, various unsupervised classification techniques can be employed with DNA microarray data to identify novel clusters (classes) of arrays.

• In addition, mRNAs may experience amplification bias that is sequence or molecule-specific.

• [25] The input data used in class discovery analyses are commonly based on lists of genes having high informativeness (low noise) based on low values of the coefficient of
  variation or high values of Shannon entropy, etc.

• Although oligonucleotide probes are often used in “spotted” microarrays, the term “oligonucleotide array” most often refers to a specific technique of manufacturing.

• [15] Two-channel vs. one-channel detection[edit] Diagram of typical dual-colour microarray experiment Two-color microarrays or two-channel microarrays are typically hybridized
  with cDNA prepared from two samples to be compared (e.g.

• [35][36] Unlike microarrays, which need a reference genome and transcriptome to be available before the microarray itself can be designed, RNA-Seq can also be used for new
  model organisms whose genome has not been sequenced yet.

• Identifying naturally existing groups of objects (microarrays or genes) which cluster together can enable the discovery of new groups that otherwise were not previously known
  to exist.

• A number of open-source data warehousing solutions, such as InterMine and BioMart, have been created for the specific purpose of integrating diverse biological datasets, and
  also support analysis.

• The determination of the most likely or optimal number of clusters obtained from an unsupervised analysis is called cluster validity.

• Publications exist which indicate in-house spotted microarrays may not provide the same level of sensitivity compared to commercial oligonucleotide arrays,[13] possibly owing
  to the small batch sizes and reduced printing efficiencies when compared to industrial manufactures of oligo arrays.

• two RNA samples obtained from each experimental unit) may help to quantitate precision.

• A DNA microarray (also commonly known as DNA chip or biochip) is a collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface.

• More recently, Maskless Array Synthesis from NimbleGen Systems has combined flexibility with large numbers of probes.

• [10] Fabrication[edit] Microarrays can be manufactured in different ways, depending on the number of probes under examination, costs, customization requirements, and the type
  of scientific question being asked.

• [21] Algorithms that affect statistical analysis include: • Image analysis: gridding, spot recognition of the scanned image (segmentation algorithm), removal or marking of
  poor-quality and low-intensity features (called flagging).

• [14] Each applicable probe is selectively “unmasked” prior to bathing the array in a solution of a single nucleotide, then a masking reaction takes place and the next set
  of probes are unmasked in preparation for a different nucleotide exposure.

• The labelled fragments bind to an ordered array of complementary oligonucleotides, and measurement of fluorescent intensity across the array indicates the abundance of a predetermined
  set of sequences.

• These sequences are typically specifically chosen to report on genes of interest within the organism’s genome.

• Third, spots of each cDNA clone or oligonucleotide are present as replicates (at least duplicates) on the microarray slide, to provide a measure of technical precision in
  each hybridization.

• This provides a relatively low-cost microarray that may be customized for each study, and avoids the costs of purchasing often more expensive commercial arrays that may represent
  vast numbers of genes that are not of interest to the investigator.

• For some of these methods the user also has to define a distance measure between pairs of objects.

• • Class prediction analysis: This approach, called supervised classification, establishes the basis for developing a predictive model into which future unknown test objects
  can be input in order to predict the most likely class membership of the test objects.

• Normalization methods may be suited to specific platforms and, in the case of commercial platforms, the analysis may be proprietary.

• [31] Weighted gene co-expression network analysis is widely used for identifying co-expression modules and intramodular hub genes.

 

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