genocide of indigenous peoples

 

  • He saw this genocide as a two-stage process, the first being the destruction of the indigenous population’s way of life.

  • As a result, the debate about whether the Canadian government also committed physical and biological genocide against Indigenous populations remains open.

  • Bartolome wrote: “They erected certain Gibbets, large, but low made, so that their feet almost reached the ground, every one of which was so ordered as to bear Thirteen Persons
    in Honour and Reverence (as they said blasphemously) of our Redeemer and his Twelve Apostles, under which they made a Fire to burn them to Ashes whilst hanging on them”[40] It is estimated that during the initial Spanish conquest of the Americas
    up to eight million indigenous people died, primarily through the spread of Afro-Eurasian diseases,[28] in a series of events that have been described as the first large-scale act of genocide of the modern era.

  • [116] Author Steven Pinker wrote:[117] Among its many wars (19th century) is the War of the Triple Alliance, which may have killed 400,000 people, including more than 60 percent
    of the population of Paraguay, making it proportionally the most destructive war in modern times.

  • [99] Indigenous people continue to report (d), the “imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group,” within more recent years.

  • [19][20] Some genocide scholars separate the population declines due to disease from the genocidal aggression of one group toward another.

  • [100] Examples such as the ones listed above have led to widespread physical and virtual action across the country to protest the historical and current genocidal harms faced
    by Indigenous peoples.

  • [36] As detailed in American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present (2015), It is also apparent that the shared history of the hemisphere is one which is framed by the
    dual tragedies of genocide and slavery, both of which are part of the legacy of the European invasions of the past 500 years.

  • [50] According to historian David Stannard, the encomienda was a genocidal system which “had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and
    agonizing deaths.”.

  • [43][44] Historian Andrés Reséndez at the University of California, Davis asserts that even though disease was a factor, the indigenous population of Hispaniola would have
    rebounded the same way Europeans did following the Black Death if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to.

  • Subsection (c) of the UN definition: “deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part” is an
    act of genocide that has historic legacies, such as the near and full extrapolation of caribou and bison that contributed to mass famines in Indigenous communities,[96][97] how on reserve conditions infringe on the quality of life of Indigenous
    peoples as their social services are underfunded and inaccessible, and hold the bleakest water qualities in the first world country.

  • [17] The UN definition, which is used in international law, is narrower than Lemkin’s, and states that genocide is: “any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy,
    in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group,” as such:[18] (a) “Killing members of the group;” (b) “Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;” (c) “Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions
    of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;” (d) “Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;” (e) “Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.”

  • Examples that can be considered this form of genocide include the treatment of Tibetans and Uyghurs by the Government of China, the treatment of Native Americans by citizens
    of the United States and/or agents of the United States government, and the treatment of First Nations peoples by the Canadian government.

  • In the United States, some scholars (examples listed below) state that the American Indian Wars and the doctrine of manifest destiny contributed to the genocide, with one
    major event cited being the Trail of Tears.

  • According to Rushforth, “by narrowing the target to a specific set of victims known as the ‘Panis nation,’ Raudot and his successors created a North American counterpart to
    the African kingdom of Nigritie: a distant and populous nation at war with more proximate allies, poorly understood but clearly identified as legally and morally enslavable”.

  • [93] Secondly, as affirmed by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the residential school system was a clear example of (b) and (e) and similar acts continue to this day
    through the Millennium Scoop, as Indigenous children are disproportionately removed from their families and placed into the care of others who are often of different cultures through the Canadian child welfare system.

  • [73] While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out due to the elements noted above, another theory is that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against
    them.

  • For example, in the case of the colonization of the Americas, where the indigenous people of the Americas declined by up to 90% in the first[clarification needed] centuries
    of European colonization, it can be debatable how much of the population decline is attributable to genocide when disease is considered the main cause of this decline since the introduction of disease was partly unintentional.

  • Although not without conflict, French Canadians’ early interactions with Canada’s indigenous populations were relatively peaceful in comparison to the expansionist and aggressive
    policies of British North America.

  • [90] Canada’s actions towards Indigenous peoples can be categorized under the first example of the UN definition of genocide, “killing members of the group,” through the spreading
    of deadly disease such as during the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic.

  • [21] Some scholars argue that intent of genocide is not necessary, since genocide may be the cumulative result of minor conflicts in which settlers, or colonial or state agents,
    perpetrate violence against minority groups.

  • [9][10] According to David Maybury-Lewis, imperial and colonial forms of genocide are enacted in two main ways, either through the deliberate clearing of territories of their
    original inhabitants in order to make them exploitable for purposes of resource extraction or colonial settlements, or through enlisting indigenous peoples as forced laborers in colonial or imperialist projects of resource extraction.

  • A people group may continue to exist, but if it is prevented from perpetuating its group identity by prohibitions of its cultural and religious practices, practices which
    are the basis of its group identity, this may also be considered a form of genocide.

  • [75] In the 1990s some scholars began pushing for Canada to recognize the Canadian Indian residential school system as a genocidal process rooted in colonialism.

  • Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation.

  • In theory, the encomienda placed groups of indigenous peoples under Spanish oversight to foster cultural assimilation and conversion to Catholicism, but in practice led to
    the legally sanctioned forced labor and resource extraction under brutal conditions with a high death rate.

  • [7] While the concept of genocide was formulated by Raphael Lemkin in the mid-20th century, the expansion of various European colonial powers such as the British and Spanish
    empires and the subsequent establishment of colonies on indigenous territories frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against indigenous groups in the Americas, Australia, Africa, and Asia.

  • The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence
    of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups.

  • [6] Others argue that the dire consequences of European diseases among many New World populations were exacerbated by different forms of genocidal violence, and that intentional
    and unintentional deaths cannot easily be separated.

  • [38] UCL Geography Professor Mark Maslin, one of the co-authors of the study, states that the large death toll also boosted the economies of Europe: “the depopulation of the
    Americas may have inadvertently allowed the Europeans to dominate the world.

  • [74] More recent understandings of the concept of “cultural genocide” and its relation to settler colonialism have led modern scholars to a renewed discussion of the genocidal
    aspects of the Canadian states’ role in producing and legitimating the process of physical and cultural destruction of Indigenous people.

  • [81][82] The system has been described as cultural genocide: “killing the Indian in the child.

  • For Lemkin, genocide was broadly defined and included all attempts to destroy a specific ethnic group, whether strictly physical through mass killings, or cultural or psychological
    through oppression and destruction of indigenous ways of life.

  • In the second stage, the newcomers impose their way of life on the indigenous group.

  • [37] According to geographers from University College London, the colonization of the Americas by Europeans killed so many people it resulted in climate change and global
    cooling.

  • [22][23] Some scholars regard the colonization of the Americas as genocide, since they argue it was largely achieved through systematically exploiting, removing and destroying
    specific ethnic groups, which would create environments and conditions for such disease to proliferate.

  • Moreover, children living on-reserve are subject to inadequate funding for social services which has led to filing of a ninth non-compliance order in early 2021 the Canadian
    Human Rights Tribunal in attempts to hold the Canadian government accountable.

  • [36] However, historian Jeffrey Ostler has argued that Spanish colonization created conditions for disease to spread, for example, “careful studies have revealed that it is
    highly unlikely that members” of Hernando de Soto’s 1539 expedition in the American South “had smallpox or measles.

  • [114] Argentina also expanded northward, dispossessing a number of Chaco peoples through a policy that may be considered as genocidal.

  • [71] Nevertheless, by 1829, with the death of Shanawdithit, the Beothuk people, the indigenous people of Newfoundland were officially declared extinct after suffering epidemics,
    starvation, loss of access to food sources, and displacement by English and French fishermen and traders.

  • When Raudot pronounced indigenous slavery to be legal in New France, the practice had already been well established in the Native and French alliances throughout the seventeenth
    and eighteenth centuries.

  • [67] Canada See also: Indigenous peoples in Canada, High Arctic relocation, and Canadian Indian residential school system Officially, the last of the Beothuks, Shanawdithit
    (ca.

  • “[83][84][85] Part of this process during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the Sixties Scoop, was investigated and the child seizures deemed genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman,
    who wrote: “You took a child from his or her specific culture and you placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child.

  • [24][25][26] According to a 2020 study by Tai S Edwards and Paul Kelton, recent scholarship shows “that colonizers bear responsibility for creating conditions that made natives
    vulnerable to infection, increased mortality, and hindered population recovery.

  • “[103] Pope Francis on his return flight to Rome on July 30, 2022, after a week-long trip to Canada, responded to a question from a journalist: “It’s true, I didn’t use the
    word because it didn’t occur to me, but I described the genocide and asked for pardon, forgiveness for this work that is genocidal.

  • “[46] Noble David Cook, writing about the Black Legend conquest of the Americas wrote, “There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have
    died in the first century after Old and New World contact.”

  • [62] However, much like the Pequot, the Narragansett people continue to live today as a federally recognized tribe.

  • [28] Simultaneously, wars and atrocities waged by Europeans against Native Americans also resulted in deaths.

  • Mistreatment and killing of Native Americans continued for centuries, in every area of the Americas, including the areas that would become Canada, the United States, Mexico,
    Brazil, and the Southern Cone countries such as Paraguay, Chile, and Argentina.

  • However, all examples below of physical genocide are still highly debated as the requirement of intention and overall motivations behind the perpetrators actions is not widely
    agreed upon as of yet.

  • “[104] Mexico Graph of population decline in central Mexico caused by successive epidemics Apaches In 1835, the government of the Mexican state of Sonora put a bounty on the
    Apache which, over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old.

  • [101][102] On July 28, 2022, during the visit by Pope Francis to Canada, at the Notre-Dame de Québec Cathedral the Francis stated: “And thinking about the process of healing
    and reconciliation with our indigenous brothers and sisters, never again can the Christian community allow itself to be infected by the idea that one culture is superior to others, or that it is legitimate to employ ways of coercing others.

  • The commission, however, was not authorized to conclude that physical and biological genocide occurred, as such a finding would imply a difficult to prove legal responsibility
    for the Canadian government.

  • [63] French and Indian War and Pontiac’s War, 1754–1763 Main articles: French and Indian Wars and Pontiac’s War On 12 June 1755, during the French and Indian War, Massachusetts
    governor William Shirley issued a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of Indian females or of children under 12 years old.

  • Further examples from other parts of the country include the Saskatoon’s freezing deaths,[91] the epidemic of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, Girls and Two-Spirited
    people,[92] and the scalping bounties offered by the governor of Nova Scotia, Edward Cornwallis.

  • [89] When engaged within the context of international law, colonialism in Canada has inflicted each criterion for the United Nations definition of the crime of genocide.

  • [112] Southern Cone See also: Southern Cone, Demographics of the Southern Cone, and Category:Indigenous topics of the Southern Cone Both Argentina and Chile launched campaigns
    of territorial expansion in the second half of the 19th century, at the expenses of indigenous peoples and neighbor states.

  • [64][65] In 1756, Pennsylvania lieutenant-governor Robert Hunter Morris, in his declaration of war against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered “130 Pieces of Eight,
    for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years”, and “50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed.

  • “[34] Native American studies professor Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz states, Proponents of the default position emphasize attrition by disease despite other causes equally deadly,
    if not more so.

  • “[86] another aspect of the residential school systems was its use of forced sterilization of Indigenous women who chose not to follow the schools advice of marrying non-Indigenous
    men.

  • [33] Political scientist Guenter Lewy states that “even if up to 90 percent of the reduction in Indian population was the result of disease, that leaves a sizable death toll
    caused by mistreatment and violence.

  • [68] Therefore, the flood of Native slaves in the St. Lawrence largely came from their Western counterparts.

  • [32] Thornton describes the direct consequences of warfare, violence and massacres as genocides, many of which had the effect of wiping out entire ethnic groups.

  • Indigenous people both north and south were displaced, died of disease, and were killed by Europeans through slavery, rape, and war.

  • [60] Massacre of the Narragansett people, 1675 Main article: Great Swamp Fight The Great Swamp Massacre was committed during King Philip’s War by colonial militia of New England
    on the Narragansett tribe in December 1675.

  • The Executive Summary of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that the state pursued a policy of cultural genocide through forced assimilation.

  • In the 5 years of war, the Paraguayan population was reduced, including, civilians, women, children, and the elderly.

  • The system was designed to remove children from the influence of their families and culture with the aim of assimilating them into the dominant Canadian culture.

 

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