Geomorphology

 

  • [citation needed] In the period following World War II, the emergence of process, climatic, and quantitative studies led to a preference by many earth scientists for the term “geomorphology” in order to suggest an analytical approach to landscapes rather than a descriptive one.

  • [46] In contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establish denudation chronologies, and is thus an important concept in the science of historical geology.

  • [11][24][25][34] These methods began to allow prediction of the past and future behavior of landscapes from present observations, and were later to develop into the modern trend of a highly quantitative approach to geomorphic problems.

  • [25] He also emphasised that in many landscapes slope evolution occurs by backwearing of rocks, not by Davisian-style surface lowering, and his science tended to emphasise surface process over understanding in detail the surface history of a given locality.

  • In the decades following Davis’s development of this idea, many of those studying geomorphology sought to fit their findings into this framework, known today as “Davisian”.

  • [9]
    History
    Other than some notable exceptions in antiquity, geomorphology is a relatively young science, growing along with interest in other aspects of the earth sciences in the mid-19th century.

  • Surface processes comprise the action of water, wind, ice, wildfire, and life on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form soils and alter material properties, the stability and rate of change of topography under the force of gravity, and other factors, such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape.

  • In contrast, both Davis and Penck were seeking to emphasize the importance of evolution of landscapes through time and the generality of the Earth’s surface processes across different landscapes under different conditions.

  • Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the Earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets.

  • Particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include:

    1) that not all landscapes can be considered as either “stable” or “perturbed”, where this perturbed state is a temporary displacement away from some ideal target form.

  • [45]

    Albeit having its importance diminished, climatic geomorphology continues to exist as field of study producing relevant research.

  • In the early 19th century, authors – especially in Europe – had tended to attribute the form of landscapes to local climate, and in particular to the specific effects of glaciation and periglacial processes.

  • Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling.

  • [30]

    Despite considerable criticism, the cycle of erosion model has remained part of the science of geomorphology.

  • [16][17][18] Furthermore, he promoted the theory of gradual climate change over centuries of time once ancient petrified bamboos were found to be preserved underground in the dry, northern climate zone of Yanzhou, which is now modern day Yan’an, Shaanxi province.

  • [42][43] This in turn has indicated the importance of chaotic determinism to landscapes, and that landscape properties are best considered statistically.

  • [47] The inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines.

  • [8] This effort not only helps better understand the geologic and atmospheric history of those planets but also extends geomorphological study of the Earth.

  • Instead, dynamic changes of the landscape are now seen as an essential part of their nature.

  • [11] Modern researchers aim to draw out quantitative “laws” that govern Earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which these processes operate.

  • [26]

    Both Davis and Penck were trying to place the study of the evolution of the Earth’s surface on a more generalized, globally relevant footing than it had been previously.

  • [24] Penck thought that landform evolution was better described as an alternation between ongoing processes of uplift and denudation, as opposed to Davis’s model of a single uplift followed by decay.

  • [11][13] The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity published in Arabic at Basra during the 10th century also discussed the cyclical changing positions of land and sea with rocks breaking down and being washed into the sea, their sediment eventually rising to form new continents.

  • Many groundbreaking and widely cited early geomorphology studies appeared in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America,[35] and received only few citations prior to 2000 (they are examples of “sleeping beauties”)[36] when a marked increase in quantitative geomorphology research occurred.

  • [21]
    Early modern geomorphology
    The term geomorphology seems to have been first used by Laumann in an 1858 work written in German.

  • An early popular geomorphic model was the geographical cycle or cycle of erosion model of broad-scale landscape evolution developed by William Morris Davis between 1884 and 1899.

  • Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek γῆ (gê) ‘earth’ μορφή (morphḗ) ‘form’ and λόγος (lógos) ‘study’)[2] is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth’s surface.

  • [44] The same processes in the same landscapes do not always lead to the same end results.

  • [24] Davis’s ideas are of historical importance, but have been largely superseded today, mainly due to their lack of predictive power and qualitative nature.

  • These approaches are used to understand weathering and the formation of soils, sediment transport, landscape change, and the interactions between climate, tectonics, erosion, and deposition.

  • As geographical knowledge increased over time these observations were systematized in a search for regional patterns.

  • [38][41]
    2) that many geomorphic systems are best understood in terms of the stochasticity of the processes occurring in them, that is, the probability distributions of event magnitudes and return times.

  • [27] Physiography later was considered to be a contraction of “physical” and “geography”, and therefore synonymous with physical geography, and the concept became embroiled in controversy surrounding the appropriate concerns of that discipline.

  • Other geomorphologists study how hillslopes form and change.

  • Geomorphologists may rely on geochronology, using dating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface.

  • Planetary geomorphologists often use Earth analogues to aid in their study of surfaces of other planets.

  • [38][39]

    In Sweden Filip Hjulström’s doctoral thesis, “The River Fyris” (1935), contained one of the first quantitative studies of geomorphological processes ever published.

  • Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short period of time, making them extremely important entities in the high latitudes and meaning that they set the conditions in the headwaters of mountain-born streams; glaciology therefore is important in geomorphology.

  • Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as deserts.

  • [62] Because ocean basins are the ultimate sinks for a large fraction of terrestrial sediments, depositional processes and their related forms (e.g., sediment fans, deltas) are particularly important as elements of marine geomorphology.

  • Long-term plate tectonic dynamics give rise to orogenic belts, large mountain chains with typical lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which form focal points for high rates of fluvial and hillslope processes and thus long-term sediment production.

  • [56]

    The way glacial processes interact with other landscape elements, particularly hillslope and fluvial processes, is an important aspect of Plio-Pleistocene landscape evolution and its sedimentary record in many high mountain environments.

  • Weathering is the chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surface agents, and is typically studied by soil scientists and environmental chemists, but is an essential component of geomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place.

  • Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, chemical dissolution, mass wasting, groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial action, tectonism, and volcanism.

  • Features of deeper mantle dynamics such as plumes and delamination of the lower lithosphere have also been hypothesised to play important roles in the long term (> million year), large scale (thousands of km) evolution of the Earth’s topography (see dynamic topography).

  • Biology can influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from biogeochemical processes controlling chemical weathering, to the influence of mechanical processes like burrowing and tree throw on soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance.

  • In this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large-scale landscape evolution in nonglacial environments.

  • Plutonic rocks intruding then solidifying at depth can cause both uplift or subsidence of the surface, depending on whether the new material is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces.

  • Civil and environmental engineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related to canals, slope stability (and natural hazards), water quality, coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, and stream restoration.

  • Hillslopes that steepen up to certain critical thresholds are capable of shedding extremely large volumes of material very quickly, making hillslope processes an extremely important element of landscapes in tectonically active areas.

  • [53] Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and forming new sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the surrounding hillslopes.

  • Terrestrial landscapes in which the role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as Mars.

  • The action of volcanoes tends to rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface with lava and tephra, releasing pyroclastic material and forcing rivers through new paths.

  • Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated sediments.

 

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