ivory trade

 

  • “[86] One of the main concerns of the conference was specifically on reevaluating the measures already in place to protect African elephants and the illegal trade of their
    ivory.

  • [4] The international deliberations over the measures required to prevent the serious decline in elephant numbers almost always ignored the loss of human life in Africa, the
    fueling of corruption, the “currency” of ivory in buying arms, and the breakdown of law and order in areas where illegal ivory trade flourished.

  • However, the species is still threatened by the ivory trade, and many conservationists have supported the African ivory trade ban because evidence shows that ivory traders
    are not concerned whether their raw material is from Africa or Asia.

  • [8][9] Although many ivory traders repeatedly claimed that the problem was habitat loss, it became glaringly clear that the threat was primarily the international ivory trade.

  • [32] Renewed sales[edit] Using criteria that had been agreed upon at the 1989 CITES meeting, among much controversy and debate, in 1997 CITES parties agreed to allow the populations
    of African elephants in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe to be “downlisted” to Appendix Two which would allow international trade in elephant parts.

  • However, its role in the illegal ivory trade and slaughter of elephants in neighbouring countries was exposed in numerous news articles of the time, as part of its policy
    of destabilisation of its neighbours.

  • [53] A study funded by Save the Elephants showed than the price of ivory tripled in China during four years following 2011 when stockpile destruction of ivory became more
    popular.

  • CITES debate, attempted control and the 1989 ivory ban[edit] Some CITES parties (member states), led by Zimbabwe, stated that wildlife had to have economic value attached
    to it to survive and that local communities needed to be involved.

  • CITES had created a system which increased the value of ivory on the international market, rewarded international smugglers and gave them the ability to control the trade
    and continue smuggling new ivory.

  • They finished their appeal by describing the poaching crisis of the 1980s, and emphasized that the decision to ban ivory was not made to punish southern African countries,
    but to save the elephants in the rest of the world.

  • Although, WWF and TRAFFIC, which supported the China sale, describe the increase in illegal ivory trade a possible “coincidence,”[51] others are less cautious.

  • [40] The rise of Asia, modern European trade and the modern poaching crisis[edit] Esmond Martin has said, “When the exchange restrictions imposed upon Japan after the Second
    World War were lifted during the late 1960s, it began importing huge amounts of raw ivory.”

  • Born Free Foundation CEO Will Travers said that, “Even if we managed to close down all the unregulated markets around the world, there would still be a demand for illegal
    ivory coming from countries such as China and Japan.

  • [48] Illegal ivory continues to flow into Japan’s ivory market,[49] but since 2012, the demand for ivory has decreased as a result of new consumer awareness through education
    about the connection between buying ivory and the killing of elephants.

  • [55][56] At the 2014 Tokyo Conference on Combating Wildlife crime, United Nations University and ESRI presented the first case of evidence-based policy-making maps on enforcement
    and compliance of CITES convention where illegal ivory seizures were mapped out along with poaching incidences[57][58] The ivory trade has steadily been a reoccurring problem that dwindled down the population of the African elephants and the
    white rhino.

  • [7][10] Despite these public revelations by the EIA, and followed by media exposures and appeals from African countries and a range of well-respected organisations around
    the world, WWF only came out in support of a ban in mid-1989, indicating the importance of the “lethal use” principle of wildlife to WWF and CITES; even then, the group attempted to water down decisions at the October 1989 meeting of CITES.

  • A report by the Japan Wildlife Conservation Society warned that the price of ivory jumped due to price fixing by a small number of manufacturers who controlled the bulk of
    the ivory—similar to the control of stocks when stockpiles were amnestied in the 1980s.

  • Ivory has been traded for hundreds of years by people in Africa and Asia, resulting in restrictions and bans.

  • [33] Forty-nine tonnes of ivory was registered in these three countries, and Japan’s assertion that it had sufficient controls in place was accepted by CITES and the ivory
    was sold to Japanese traders in 1997 as an “experiment”.

  • The southern African countries continue to attempt to sell ivory through legal systems.

  • [6] Southern African opposition to the ban[edit] Throughout the debate which led to the 1990 ivory ban, a group of southern African countries supported Hong Kong and Japanese
    ivory traders to maintain trade.

  • [35] The two systems, Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) and Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS), have been highly criticised as a waste of money for
    not being able to prove or disprove any causality between ivory stockpile sales and poaching levels—perhaps the most significant reason for their establishment.

  • [64] A 101 East report named Hong Kong as “one of the biggest ivory laundering centres in the world [where] legitimate operations are used to mask a far more sinister, more
    lucrative business”.

  • In many African countries, domestic markets have grown, providing easy access to ivory, although the Asian ivory syndicates are most destructive buying and shipping tonnes
    at a time.

  • However, many of those on the ground claimed that the sale had changed the perception of ivory, and many poachers and traders believed they were back in business.

  • This was stated to be because these countries claimed to have well-managed elephant populations and they needed the revenue from ivory sales to fund conservation.

  • In an appeal to overcome national interests, a group of eminent elephant scientists responded with an open letter in 2002 which clearly explained the effects of the ivory
    trade on other countries.

  • “[6] To demonstrate the lack of ivory controls in China, the EIA leaked an internal Chinese document showing how 121 tonnes of ivory from its own official stockpile (equivalent
    to the tusks from 11,000 elephants) could not be accounted for, a Chinese official admitting “this suggests a large amount of illegal sale of the ivory stockpile has taken place.

  • However, the decision was accompanied by “registering” stockpiles within these countries and examining trade controls in any designated importing country.

  • [46] The announcement was welcomed by conservation group WWF, who called it a “historic announcement… signalling an end to the world’s primary legal ivory market and a major
    boost to international efforts to tackle the elephant poaching crisis.

  • One such article reported “William Hague said the deal would “mark the turning point in the fight to save endangered species and to end the illegal wildlife trade”.

  • [39] Before the sale took place, in the wings China was seeking approval as an ivory destination country.

  • Although both countries were implicated as entrepôts in illegal ivory from other African countries, WWF, with strong ties to both countries, found itself in a difficult position.

  • Since China was given “approved buyer” status by CITES, the smuggling of ivory seems to have increased alarmingly.

  • “[54] Based on these findings, the study authors recommended action to both reduce demand for ivory in China and other main markets and to decrease corruption and poverty
    in Africa.

  • 532 elephant tusks and over 40,000 blank ivory hankos were seized, and the EIA carried out investigations which showed that this case had been preceded by 19 other suspected
    ivory shipments, four destined for China and the rest for Singapore, though often en route to Japan.

  • This started to put pressure on the forest elephants of Africa and Asia, both of which were used to supply the hard ivory preferred by the Japanese for the production of hanko,
    name seal stamps used like a signature.

  • China, yet to become the economic force of today, consumed small amounts of ivory to keep its skilled carvers in business.

  • It is believed that a legal loophole that allows for the trading of old ivory masks the sale of items made of ivory from more recently killed elephants.

  • [6][7] African elephant[edit] 1980s poaching and illegal trade[edit] In 1979, the African elephant population was estimated to be around 1.3 million in 37 range states, but
    by 1989, only 600,000 remained.

  • By the 1970s, Japan consumed about 40% of the global trade; another 40% was consumed by Europe and North America, often worked in Hong Kong, which was the largest trade hub,
    with most of the rest remaining in Africa.

  • Finally at that October meeting of CITES after heated debates, the African elephant was put on Appendix One of CITES, and three months later in January 1990 when the decision
    was enacted, the international trade in ivory was banned.

  • In the same year, CITES agreed to the establishment of two systems to inform its member states on the status of illegal killing and trade.

  • [7][10] Large parts of the stockpiles were owned by international criminals behind the poaching and illegal international trade.

  • [7][10] Further failures of this “control” system were uncovered by the EIA when they gained undercover access and filmed ivory carving factories run by Hong Kong traders,
    including Poon, in the United Arab Emirates.

  • The government argued the ivory trade would fund conservation efforts, but revenues were instead returned to the central treasury.

  • They stated that the proposals for renewed trade from southern Africa did not bear comparison with most of Africa because they were based on a South African model where 90%
    of the elephant population lived in a fenced National Park.

  • In 1986, CITES introduced a new control system involving CITES paper permits, registration of huge ivory stockpiles and monitoring of legal ivory movements.

  • While 46 countries signed this agreement, it was reported in 2015 by The Guardian that the elephant poaching crisis was still unimproved.

  • [63] In terms of retail trade of elephant ivory, Hong Kong is the largest market in the world, and has been criticised for fueling the slaughter of elephants to meet the demand
    of customers principally from mainland China.

  • The effect of the sale of ivory to Japan in 2000 was hotly debated with Traffic, the organization which compiled the ETIS and MIKE databases, claiming they could not determine
    any link.

  • [44][45] China’s State Council has announced that China is banning all ivory trade and processing activities by the end of 2017.

  • Ivory was widely accepted in terms of non-lethal use of wildlife, but a debate raged over lethal use as in the case of the ivory trade.

  • [36][37] They do pull together information on poaching and seizures as provided by member states, although not all states provide comprehensive data.

  • [54] The study found that the “annual poaching rates in 53 sites strongly correlate with proxies of ivory demand in the main Chinese markets, whereas between-country and between-site
    variation is strongly associated with indicators of corruption and poverty.

  • [78][79] In 2018, a study by Avaaz sponsored by Oxford University indicated that legal antique ivory trading in the European Union continues to fuel the poaching of elephants.

  • [80] As a source of terrorism funding[edit] Claims of a link between terrorism and the ivory trade have been made by a number of public officials and media outlets.

  • Japan’s ivory controls were seriously questioned with 25% of traders not even registered, voluntary rather than legal requirement of traders, and illegal shipments entering
    Japan.

  • [15] The two countries leading the attempt to overturn the ban immediately after it was agreed were South Africa and Zimbabwe.

  • It was recognised that the “sustainable lethal use of wildlife” argument was in jeopardy if the ivory trade could not be controlled.

  • They claimed that their elephant populations were well managed and they wanted revenue from ivory sales to fund conservation.

  • [34] In 2000, South Africa also “downlisted” its elephant population to CITES Appendix Two with a stated desire to sell its ivory stockpile.

  • [90] The ban, when it comes into effect, has been described one of the “world’s toughest” ivory bans and effectively bans the buying and selling of all available form of ivory
    in the UK bar some narrow exemptions.

  • It has been reported that it was not simply the act of the Appendix One listing and various national bans associated with it, but the enormous publicity surrounding the issue
    prior to the decision and afterwards, that created a widely accepted perception that the trade was harmful and now illegal.

  • Martin said that Chinese carvers mainly sold ivory products to neighbors in the 1990s and not to internal buyers in China: “These were supplying shops selling trinkets to
    tourists and businessmen from Asian countries such as Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Indonesia, where the anti-ivory culture wasn’t so strong, They were also exporting worked ivory wholesale to neighbouring countries.

  • [50] China’s increased involvement in infrastructure projects in Africa and the purchase of natural resources has alarmed many conservationists who fear the extraction of
    wildlife body parts is increasing.

  • [27] Southern African countries have continued to push for the international ivory trade.

  • [11] EIA confirmed with their investigations that not only had these syndicates made enormous wealth, but they also possessed huge quantities of CITES permits with which they
    continued to smuggle new ivory, which if stopped by customs, they produced the paper permit.

  • “[31] However, the southern Africans have always been in a minority within the African elephant range states.

  • [94] The natives are permitted to sell the ivory of the hunted walrus to non–natives as long as it is reported to a United States Fish and Wildlife Service representative,
    tagged and fashioned into some type of handicraft.

  • [54] In 2012, The New York Times reported on a large upsurge in ivory poaching, with about 70% flowing to China.

 

Works Cited

[‘1. Lavers, Chris (2009). The Natural History of Unicorns. USA: William Morris. pp. 112–150. ISBN 978-0-06-087414-8.
2. ^ Kramer, Andrew E. (19 November 2008). “Trade in mammoth ivory, helped by global thaw, flourishes in Russia”. The New York Times.
Retrieved 12 December 2009.
3. ^ THE IVORY TRADE. pp 7-11. A CONSULTANCY UNDERTAKEN FOR DR. IAIN DOUGLAS-HAMILTON ON BEHALF OF THE UNITED STATES FISH & WILDLIFE SERVICE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, AND THE INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR THE CONSERVATION
OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES, MORGE, SWITZERLAND. June 1979 I.S.C. Parker Wildlife Services Ltd P.O. B0X 30678 NAIROBI, Kenya. “Typical are these comments from one Samuel Swan, trader, to his principal — merchant John Tidd in Boston :”May 16, 1809…Since
the destruction of the slave trade the Crew (= Kru, a West African people) Country is full of ivory” the gist of this being that now slaves were illegal, ivory was difficult to move.” BENNETT, N.R. & BROOKS J.R. 1965 New England merchants in Africa.
Boston Univ. Press, Boston.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Profound changes. Biothinkig.com. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
5. ^ Reed Business Information (1986). New Scientist. Reed Business Information. pp. 49–. ISSN 0262-4079. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic
name (help)
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Magazine / Geographical. Geographical.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k “To Save An Elephant” by Allan Thornton & Dave Currey, Doubleday 1991 ISBN 0-385-40111-6
8. ^ Jump
up to:a b c Kenya Elephant Forum Factsheet 02 Archived 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
9. ^ Lemieux, A. M.; Clarke, R. V. (2009). “The International Ban on Ivory Sales and its Effects on Elephant Poaching in Africa”. British Journal of Criminology.
49 (4): 451. doi:10.1093/bjc/azp030.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e “A System of Extinction – the African Elephant Disaster” Environmental Investigation Agency 1989
11. ^ Jump up to:a b Reed Business Information (1988). New Scientist. Reed Business
Information. pp. 30–. ISSN 0262-4079. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
12. ^ Jump up to:a b Increased Demand for Ivory Threatens Elephant Survival. The Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
13. ^ Lifting the Ivory Ban Called Premature.
NPR (31 October 2002). Retrieved 2011-02-02.
14. ^ CIA released memoEnforcement of the Ivory Trade Ban – 1 yr Assessment, 18 January 1991
15. ^ Jump up to:a b “Living Proof”, Dave Currey & Helen Moore, A report by Environmental Investigation Agency
Sept 1994
16. ^ Jump up to:a b Return of the Ivory Trade, The Independent, 12 July 2008
17. ^ Jump up to:a b c d “Under Fire – elephants in the front line”, Austin, Currey, Galster, Reeve, Thornton, Watts, 1992, EIA report
18. ^ “Train killers”,
New Nation (SA) 19 July 1991
19. ^ Elephant Conservation Plan for Mozambique, AECCG, Olindo, Woodford, Oct 1991
20. ^ US Defense Intelligence Agency report, April 1991 “Renamo deserter talks of SA support to Renamo”
21. ^ “Renamo’s secret SA
bases”, The Weekly Mail (SA) 16–22 March 1990
22. ^ New Scientist, 26 August 1989
23. ^ Post mortem report 189/135/89, 17 March 1989
24. ^ “Mystery callers torment murdered captain’s widow” Parade Mag (Zim) Sept 1990
25. ^ “Zimbabwe smugglers
kill another officer” New African Nov 1991
26. ^ “Nleya’s enquiry 3 suspects die mysteriously” Sunday Times, 17 November 1991
27. ^ Katy Payne, Cornell University; Iain Douglas-Hamilton, Save the Elephants; Vivek Menon, Wildlife Trust of India;
Cynthia Moss, Amboseli Elephant Research Project; Joyce Poole, Savanna Elephant Vocalization Project; Andrea Turkalo, Wildlife Conservation Society (31 October 2002). “Lifting the Ivory Ban Called Premature – Scientists Offer a Perspective on Elephants
and Ivory”. NPR. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
28. ^ Jump up to:a b “Big Question: Is it right to sell ivory, or does it just encourage the poaching of elephants” , The Independent via Africa Geographic, 28 October 2008
29. ^ “Ivory for arms deal”,
The Zimbabwean, April 2008
30. ^ “Donald Trump lifts ban to allow hunters to continue bringing in elephant trophies”. The Independent. 16 November 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2017.
31. ^ ‘The horror! The horror!’, 11 July 2011, Rediff.com, an
excerpt from the order of the Supreme Court of India
32. ^ African countries set to lock horns over ivory Archived 21 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine. The Brunei Times, 31 May 2007. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
33. ^ Wildlife Trade – elephant ivory
FAQs WWF
34. ^ “HSI Ivory trade timeline” (PDF). hsi.org. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
35. ^ Mike And Etis Archived 19 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Cites.org. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
36. ^ “Elephants, Ivory & trade” Wasser et al March 2010
Science Magazine
37. ^ factsheet 2002, Species Survival Network
38. ^ Jump up to:a b “Back in Business” Archived 1 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Hastie, Newman, Rice, 2002 an EIA report
39. ^ Jump up to:a b “Destination Japan – an investigation
into the Japan seizure and laundering of illegal ivory” Japan Wildlife Conservation Society, May 2007
40. ^ REUTERS (18 November 2014). “Uganda: Inquiry into Ivory Theft Opens”. The New York Times. Retrieved 19 November 2014. {{cite news}}: |last=
has generic name (help)
41. ^ “China, Ivory Trade & the future of Africa’s Elephants” Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, EIA-CITES briefing 2008
42. ^ Made in China – how china’s illegal ivory tradeis causing a 21st century African
elephant disaster Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, EIA report, May 2007
43. ^ Ivory sales Archived 2 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Africageographic.com.
44. ^ CITES summary record of Standing Committee 57 2008
45. ^ Return of
ivory trade as Britain backs China – Nature, Environment. The Independent, 16 July 2008.
46. ^ “China announces ban on ivory trade by end of 2017”. BBC News. bbc.co.uk. 30 December 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
47. ^ “China to ban domestic ivory
trade by 2017”. WWF Global. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
48. ^ “Campaigners fear for elephants and their own credibility”, The Economist, July 2008
49. ^ Photograph Shuji Kajiyama, Associated Press (10 December 2015). “How Japan is Fueling the Slaughter
of Elephants”. National Geographic.
50. ^ Jump up to:a b Schwartz, Michael (8 August 2014). “America’s ongoing debate over the trade in ivory”. www.africageographic.com. Africa Geographic Magazine. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
51. ^ WWF – “data shows
illegal ivory trade on rise”, November 2009
52. ^ Jump up to:a b “Ivory Trade threatens African Elephant”, Jason Strazjuso, Michael Caesy, William Foreman, May 2010
53. ^ “Shopping habits of China’s “suddenly wealthy”, FT Magazine, August 2009
54. ^
Jump up to:a b c Severin Hauenstein, Mrigesh Kshatriya, Julian Blanc, Carsten F. Dormann & Colin M. Beale, African elephant poaching rates correlate with local poverty, national corruption and global ivory price, Nature Communications, vol. 10, 2242
(2019), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09993-2.
55. ^ Gettleman, Jeffrey (3 September 2012). “Elephants Dying in Epic Frenzy as Ivory Fuels Wars and Profits”. The New York Times.
56. ^ Gettleman, Jeffrey (26 December 2012). “In Gabon, Lure
of Ivory Is Hard for Many to Resist”. The New York Times.
57. ^ “Evidence based policy-making in addressing wildlife crime”. forestrygis.com.
58. ^ “Evidence Based Policy-Making in Addressing Wildlife Crime”. ArcGIS. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
59. ^
Davies, Nick and Oliver Holmes Animal trafficking: the $23bn criminal industry policed by a toothless regulator The Guardian. 27 September 2016
60. ^ “The Dangers of the Ivory Trade, elephants and white rhinos need our help”. www.budgetsafarisuganda.com.
Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2016.
61. ^ “WWF – Da Nang developing into major new ivory trafficking hub”. panda.org.
62. ^ “On Trail of Largest African Ivory Seizure in 25 Years, Locating Suspected Kingpin
in Vietnam”. National Geographic.
63. ^ Photography Eric Risberg, AP. “Seven of the Year’s Biggest Wins Against Wildlife Exploitation”. National Geographic.
64. ^ “‘I need to eat rice’: Ivory trader denies wrongdoing as LegCo debates combating
wildlife smuggling”. Hong Kong Free Press. 2 December 2015.
65. ^ “White Gold”. Al Jazeera.
66. ^ Photograph Ivan Damanik, NurPhoto/Corbis. “Crime Blotter: Pangolin Scales, Tiger Skins, and More”. National Geographic.
67. ^ “Ivory Worship”.
National Geographic. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
68. ^ Madison Park, CNN (27 September 2012). “Priest embroiled in ivory smuggling controversy”. CNN. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
69. ^
“National Geographic story links Philippine priest in ivory smuggling”. ncronline.org. 27 September 2012.
70. ^ “Priest in ivory scandal suspended earlier by Vatican for sexual abuse”. GMA News Online.
71. ^ “Father Cristobal Garcia: Priest fled
to the Philippines and rose in the Church”. dailynews.com. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
72. ^ Revkin, Andrew C. (26 September 2012). “Priest Included in Philippines Investigation of Ivory Smuggling”.
73. ^
“Philippine Priest Facing Scrutiny Over Ivory and Abuse”. International Herald Tribune. 28 September 2012 – via The New York Times.
74. ^ “Monsignor Cristobal Garcia, Catholic Priest, To Be Questioned By Philippines For Ivory Smuggling”. The Huffington
Post.
75. ^ “Philippines investigates priest’s ‘links to ivory trade'”. BBC News.
76. ^ Photograph Chaiwat Subprasom, REUTERS. “Cracking Down on Illegal Ivory Could Get Easier in Thailand”. National Geographic. {{cite magazine}}: |author= has
generic name (help)
77. ^ Beachy, Ben (7 December 2015). “Sharks, Tigers, and Elephants: New Analysis Reveals TPP Threats to Endangered Species”. Sierra Club.
78. ^ Jump up to:a b Yi, Shi (6 June 2017). Schoenmakers, Kevin (ed.). “How Laos’ Black
Market Undermines China’s Ivory Ban”. Sixth Tone. Translated by O’Donnell, Kilian. Archived from the original on 6 June 2017.
79. ^ Sherwell, Philip (30 April 2016). “Revealed: the Laos market selling ivory carvings and ‘medicinal’ rhino horn
from slaughtered wildlife to Chinese buyers”. The Daily Telegraph.
80. ^ “Campaign group says illegal ivory trade breezes past EU law”. Reuters. 9 July 2018. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
81. ^ Jump up to:a b c McConnell, Tristan (14 November 2014).
“Illegal ivory may not be funding African terror group”. USA Today; GlobalPost.
82. ^ Jump up to:a b Nellemann, Christian; et al., eds. (2014). The Environmental Crime Crisis: Threats to Sustainable Development From Illegal Exploitation and Trade
in Wildlife and Forest Resources. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. pp. 78–81. ISBN 978-82-7701-132-5.
83. ^ Asian Elephant. Cites.org. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
84. ^ “Elephant sized loopholes sustain Thai ivory trade”, Science
Daily, July 2009
85. ^ “Ivory trade hits Asia’s elephants”, BBC News, Feb 2009
86. ^ Governments and Regional Economic Integration Organisations. “London Conference on the Illegal Wildlife Trade” (PDF).
87. ^ Mathiesen, Karl. a year-after-global-pledge
“Elephant poaching crisis unchanged a year after global pledge”. The Guardian. Retrieved 19 September 2016. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help)
88. ^ “UK Government Announces Plan To Ban Ivory Sales And Exportation”. expressnewsline.com. Archived
from the original on 7 October 2017. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
89. ^ “Ivory Act 2018 – Parliamentary Bills – UK Parliament”. bills.parliament.uk. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
90. ^ Jump up to:a b “UK government’s ivory bill receives Royal Assent from
Queen to become the Ivory Act 2018”.
91. ^ “UK ivory ban: Elephants protected as new rules become law – CBBC Newsround”.
92. ^ “Ivory Act 2018”.
93. ^ Perdikaris, Sophia; McGovern, Thomas H (2008). “Codfish and kings, seals and subsistence:
Norse marine resource use in the Atlantic”. In Rick, Torben C.; Erlandson, Jon M. (eds.). Human Impacts on Ancient Marine Ecosystems: A Global Perspective. University of California Press. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-520-25343-8. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Marine prestige goods: Norse walrus hunting in Iceland and Greenland
94. ^ Jump up to:a b c Hunting and Use of Walrus by Alaska Natives Archived 15 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine alaska.fws.gov. Retrieved 2011–02-03
95. ^ Born, Erik W., Heide-Jorgensen,
Mads P., Davis, Rolph A (1994), The Atlantic Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) in West Greenland Museum Tusculanum Press, ISBN 87-635-1227-0, p. 26
96. ^ H-Net Reviews Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. h-net.msu.edu. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
97. ^
“Abstract I”. american.edu. Archived from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
98. ^ Würsig, Bernd; E W Born; R Dietz; R R Reeves (1995). Review of Studies of White Whales (Delphinapterus Leucas) and Narwhals (Monodon Monoceros)
in Greenland and Adjacent Waters. Quarterly Review of Biology. Vol. 70. pp. 95–96. doi:10.1086/418923. ISBN 978-87-635-1226-8. ISSN 0033-5770. Retrieved 28 January 2010.
99. ^ CBC News – North – Inuit seek review of narwhal tusk trade ban. Canadian
Broadcasting Corporation.ca (13 January 2011). Retrieved 2011-02-02.
100. ^ Mammoths : giants of the ice age, Lister, Adrian & Paul G Bahn, 2007, University of California Press ISBN 978-0-520-25319-3
Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/mrhayata/3472437817/’]