-
[20][21] Following Sulla’s final victory, however, Caesar’s connections to the old regime made him a target for the new one.
-
Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly
extended Roman territory. -
Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the last civil war of the Roman Republic.
-
[3] This began Caesar’s civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC.
-
[103] After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that
he mocked Pompey’s previous victories over such poor enemies. -
[75][76] That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second
consulship. -
[77] Pompey, however, at the time intended to go to Spain;[77] Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against
Caesar’s continued command. -
Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar’s victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead
fellow Romans. -
[52] When Caesar was first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit his future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than the governorship of a province,
as his military command duty after his year in office was over. -
He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however
they wanted, rather than needing Roman intermediaries. -
A popular theory is that Caesar was in a position where he was forced to choose between prosecution and exile or civil war.
-
Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and thus open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended.
-
[57] Conquest of Gaul Main article: Gallic Wars The extent of the Roman Republic in 40 BC after Caesar’s conquests Caesar was still deeply in debt, but there was money to
be made as a governor, whether by extortion[58] or by military adventurism. -
[113] During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague).
-
[106] Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed dictator, with a term of one year.
-
[48] First Consulship, First Triumvirate, Military Campaigns In 60 BC, Caesar sought election as consul for 59 BC, along with two other candidates.
-
With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome.
-
In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years.
-
He advanced inland, and established a few alliances, but poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, forcing Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.
-
[107] On his way to Pontus, Caesar visited Tarsus from 27 to 29 May 47 BC, where he met enthusiastic support, but where, according to Cicero, Cassius was planning to kill
him at this point. -
[54] At the instigation of Pompey and his father-in-law Piso, Transalpine Gaul (southern France) was added later after the untimely death of its governor, giving him command
of four legions. -
[88] This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes[89]), to
suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments. -
He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.
-
[33] On his return to Rome, he was elected military tribune, a first step in a political career.
-
In Hispania, he conquered two local tribes and was hailed as imperator by his troops; he reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.
-
[23] Caesar felt that it would be safer to be far away should Sulla change his mind, so he left Rome and joined the army, serving under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia and
Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. -
This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate (“rule of three men”), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar’s daughter Julia.
-
[78] As 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively.
-
[124] In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers,[125] which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate,[125] although on at least one occasion,
tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. -
The Luca Conference renewed the First Triumvirate and extended Caesar’s governorship for another five years.
-
[51] Caesar proposed a law for redistributing public lands to the poor—by force of arms, if need be—a proposal supported by Pompey and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public.
-
[24] Hearing of Sulla’s death in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome.
-
A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator
from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. -
Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north, directly opposite Britain.
-
Between his crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.
-
He went on a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes’s fleet, but he spent so long at Nicomedes’ court that rumours arose of an affair with the king,
which Caesar vehemently denied for the rest of his life. -
[83] On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued.
-
[95] Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome.
-
Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome.
-
[116] First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the Republic.
-
Late that summer, having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year, possibly the Veneti of
Brittany. -
[79] In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate.
-
[90] Around 10 or 11 January 49 BC,[91][92] in response to the Senate’s “final decree”,[93] Caesar crossed the Rubicon – the river defining the northern boundary of Italy
– with a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war. -
If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his
command and enter Rome as a private citizen. -
[60] During the spring of 56 BC, the Triumvirs held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar’s political alliance was coming undone.
-
[118] Dictatorship Green Caesar, posthumous portrait of the 1st century AD, Altes Museum, Berlin When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories,
ostensibly those over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents. -
In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate’s authority by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an army.
-
Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but he was driven from the forum by Caesar’s armed supporters.
-
After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune had the seal placed on it.
-
These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after the death of Crassus in
53 BC. -
-
[114] On Caesar’s return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian, later known as Augustus Caesar) as his principal
heir, leaving his vast estate and property including his name. -
[54] The term of his governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.
-
Caesar raised two new legions and defeated these tribes.
-
[4][5] A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored.
-
[55][56] When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.
-
[64] He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more.
-
[115] In his will, he also left a substantial gift to the citizens of Rome.
-
Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.
-
Caesar tried to re-secure Pompey’s support by offering him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined.
-
After an especially great victory, army troops in the field would proclaim their commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph.
-
[72] That year, a “Law of the Ten Tribunes” was passed, giving Caesar the right to stand for a consulship in absentia.
-
[117] He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship within 11 days.
-
[17] The loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career, as the high priest of Jupiter was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his
own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army. -
[35] Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania after his wife’s funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC.
-
In an exceedingly short engagement later that year, he decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus, Greece, on 9 August 48 BC.
-
Vercingetorix’s attempt in 52 BC to unite them against Roman invasion came too late.
-
[120] He was granted further honours, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be divine monarch: coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was
placed next to those of the kings. -
[59] In response to Caesar’s earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves.
-
Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage – in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery – and probably fathered a son called Caesarion.
-
However, Caesar also wished to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the Republic.
-
[74] In 51 BC, the consul Marcellus proposed recalling Caesar, arguing that his provincia (here meaning “task”) – due to his victory – in Gaul was complete; the proposal was
vetoed. -
After an astonishing 27-day march, Caesar defeated Pompey’s lieutenants, then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Illyria, where, on 10 July 48 BC in the battle of Dyrrhachium,
Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. -
Due to uncontrolled political violence in the city, Pompey was appointed sole consul in 52 as an emergency measure.
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2. ^ Broughton 1952, p. 574.
3. ^ Keppie, Lawrence (1998). “The approach of civil war”. The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic
to Empire. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8061-3014-9.
4. ^ Suetonius (121). “De vita Caesarum” [The Twelve Caesars]. University of Chicago. p. 107. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. More than sixty joined
the conspiracy against [Caesar], led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus and Decimus Brutus.
5. ^ Plutarch. “Life of Caesar”. University of Chicago. p. 595. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. Retrieved 19 February 2021. … at this juncture
Decimus Brutus, surnamed Albinus, who was so trusted by Caesar that he was entered in his will as his second heir, but was partner in the conspiracy of the other Brutus and Cassius, fearing that if Caesar should elude that day, their undertaking would
become known, ridiculed the seers and chided Caesar for laying himself open to malicious charges on the part of the senators …
6. ^ Tucker, Spencer (2010). Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 68. ISBN
9781598844306.
7. ^ Froude, James Anthony (1879). Life of Caesar. Project Gutenberg e-text. p. 67. Archived from the original on 9 December 2007. See also: Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Julius 6 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today; Velleius
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8. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:28–30
9. ^ Dionysius, iii. 29.
10. ^ Tacitus, Annales, xi. 24.
11. ^ Niebuhr, vol. i. note 1240, vol. ii. note 421.
12. ^
Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.7 Archived 20 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine. The misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th century (Suda kappa 1199 Archived 17 August 2013 at the
Wayback Machine). Julius was not the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while Caesar’s mother Aurelia lived long after he was born.
13. ^ Historia Augusta: Aelius 2 Archived 31 July 2022 at the
Wayback Machine.
14. ^ Goldsworthy, p. 32 Archived 6 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
15. ^ Suetonius, Julius 1 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 1 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives, Marius
6 Archived 13 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54 Archived 11 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine; Inscriptiones Italiae, 13.3.51–52
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18. ^ Suetonius, Julius 1 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today; Pliny the Elder, Natural
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19. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.22 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine; Florus, Epitome of Roman History 2.9
20. ^ “Julius Caesar”. Archived from the original on 22
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22. ^
Canfora, p. 3
23. ^ William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities: Flamen Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
24. ^ Suetonius, Julius 2–3 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 2–3 Archived 13 February 2018
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25. ^ Suetonius, Julius 46 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today
26. ^ “Suetonius • Life of Julius Caesar”. Archived from the
original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 27 January 2006.
27. ^ Again, according to Suetonius’s chronology (Julius 4 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today). Plutarch (Caesar 1.8–2 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives) says
this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes’s court. Velleius Paterculus (Roman History 2:41.3–42 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine) says merely that it happened when he was a young man.
28. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 1–2
29. ^ “Plutarch
• Life of Caesar”. penelope.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
30. ^ Thorne, James (2003). Julius Caesar: Conqueror and Dictator. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 15.
31. ^ Freeman, 39
32. ^
Freeman, 40
33. ^ Goldsworthy, 77–78
34. ^ Freeman, 51
35. ^ Freeman, 52
36. ^ Goldsworthy, 100
37. ^ Goldsworthy, 101
38. ^ Suetonius, Julius 5–8 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 5 Archived 13 February 2018 at the
Library of Congress Web Archives; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
39. ^ Mouritsen, Henrik, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic, Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press,
2001, p 97. ISBN 0-521-79100-6 For context, see Plutarch, Julius Caesar, 5.4.
40. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine; Plutarch, Caesar 7 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web
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41. ^ Sallust, Catiline War 49 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
42. ^ Kennedy, E.C. (1958). Caesar de Bello Gallico. Cambridge Elementary Classics. Vol. III. Cambridge,
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43. ^ Hammond, Mason (1966). City-state and World State in Greek and Roman Political Theory Until Augustus. Biblo & Tannen.
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44. ^ Suetonius (2004). Lives of the Caesars. Barnes and Noble Library of Essential Reading Series. Translated by J. C. Rolfe. Barnes & Noble.
p. 258. ISBN 9780760757581. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
45. ^ Broughton 1952, pp. 180, 173.
46. ^ Colegrove, Michael (2007). Distant Voices: Listening to the Leadership Lessons of the Past. iUniverse.
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47. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 11–12 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives; Suetonius, Julius 18.1 Archived 30 May 2012 at
archive.today
48. ^ Plutarch, Julius 13 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives; Suetonius, Julius 18.2 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today
49. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 13–14 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress
Web Archives; Suetonius 19 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today
50. ^ Cicero, Letters to Atticus 2.1, 2.3, 2.17; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.44 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine; Plutarch, Caesar 13–14 Archived 13 February 2018
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Cassius Dio, Roman History 38.1–8 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
53. ^ Suetonius, Julius 19.2 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today
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58. ^ See Cicero’s speeches against Verres for an example of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally
enriching himself at his province’s expense.
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63. ^ Black, Jeremy (2003). A History of the British Isles. Palgrave MacMillan. p. 6.
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Cassius Dio, Roman History 47–53 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
65. ^ Cicero, Letters to friends 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.10, 7.17; Letters to his brother Quintus 2.13, 2.15, 3.1; Letters to Atticus 4.15, 4.17, 4.18; Julius Caesar, Commentaries
on the Gallic War Book 5–6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.1–11 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
66. ^ “France: The Roman conquest”. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 July 2021.
Retrieved 6 April 2015. Because of chronic internal rivalries, Gallic resistance was easily broken, though Vercingetorix’s Great Rebellion of 52 bce had notable successes.
67. ^ “Julius Caesar: The first triumvirate and the conquest of Gaul”. Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2015. Indeed, the Gallic cavalry was probably superior to the Roman, horseman for horseman. Rome’s military superiority lay in its mastery
of strategy, tactics, discipline, and military engineering. In Gaul, Rome also had the advantage of being able to deal separately with dozens of relatively small, independent, and uncooperative states. Caesar conquered these piecemeal, and the concerted
attempt made by a number of them in 52 bce to shake off the Roman yoke came too late.
68. ^ Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 7; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.33–42 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
69. ^ Aulus Hirtius,
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74. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 258. See also Appendix 4 in the same book, analysing the conflict between Caesar and Pompey in terms of a Prisoner’s dilemma.
75. ^
Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 270.
76. ^ Drogula, Fred K (2019). Cato the Younger: life and death at the end of the Roman republic. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-19-086902-1. OCLC 1090168108.
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80. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 292–93.
81. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 297.
82. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 304.
83. ^
Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 306.
84. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 308.
85. ^ Ehrhardt, C. T. H. R. (1995). “Crossing the Rubicon”. Antichthon. 29: 30–41. doi:10.1017/S0066477400000927. ISSN 0066-4774. S2CID 142429003. Archived from the original on 21 November
2021. Retrieved 26 April 2022. Everyone knows that Caesar crossed the Rubicon because [he would have been…] put on trial, found guilty and have his political career ended… Yet over thirty years ago, Shackleton Bailey, in less than two pages of
his introduction to Cicero’s Letters to Atticus, destroyed the basis for this belief, and… no one has been able to rebuild it.
86. ^ Morstein-Marx, Robert (2007). “Caesar’s Alleged Fear of Prosecution and His “Ratio Absentis” in the Approach
to the Civil War”. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 56 (2): 159–178. doi:10.25162/historia-2007-0013. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 25598386. S2CID 159090397. Archived from the original on 19 July 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
87. ^ Morstein-Marx
2021, p. 262–63, explaining:
Any prosecution was extremely unlikely to succeed.
No contemporary source expresses dissatisfaction with an inability to prosecute.
No timely charges could have been brought. The possibility
of conviction for irregularities during his consulship in 59 “seems to be nothing more than a pipe dream” when none of Caesar’s actions in 59 were overturned. Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 624.
Caesar proposed giving up his command – opening himself
up to prosecution – in January 49 BC as part of peace negotiations, something he would not have proposed if he were worried about a sure-fire conviction.
See also Morstein-Marx 2021, Appendix 2, and, contra Morstein-Marx, Girardet, Klaus Martin (2020).
Januar 49 v. Chr.: Vorgeschichte, Rechtslage, politische Aspekte (in German). Bonn. doi:10.22028/d291-30177. ISBN 978-3-7749-4068-0. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
88. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 288. “Caesar
feared that the only guarantee of his rights… to stand for election in absentia under the protection of the Law of the Ten Tribunes and to receive a triumph… was his army”.
89. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 309.
90. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 320.
91. ^
Beard, Mary (2016). SPQR: a history of ancient Rome. W.W. Norton. p. 286. ISBN 978-1-8466-8381-7. the exact date is unknown
92. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 322.
93. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 331.
94. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 32.8 Archived 13 February
2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives
95. ^ Thomson, D. F. S.; Sperna Weiland, Jan (1988). “Erasmus and textual scholarship: Suetonius”. In Weiland, J. S. (ed.). Erasmus of Rotterdam: the man and the scholar. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill.
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96. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 336.
97. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, pp. 340 (Caesar’s pause), 342 (Caesar’s offer), 343 (Pompey’s counter-offer), 345 (negotiations collapse).
98. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021, p. 347.
99. ^
Plutarch, Caesar 42–45 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives
100. ^ Roller, Duane W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195365535, p. 175.
101. ^ Walker, Susan. “Cleopatra in Pompeii?
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106. ^
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108. ^ Caesar: a history of
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109. ^ Paul: The Man and the Myth,
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110. ^ Julius Caesar, page 311, Philip Freeman, Simon and Schuster,
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111. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 52–54 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives
112. ^ Martin Jehne, Der Staat des Dictators Caesar, Köln/Wien 1987, p. 15–38. Technically, Caesar was not appointed dictator
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113. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 56 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives
114. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 56.7–56.8 Archived 13 February
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120. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i J.F.C. Fuller, Julius Caesar, Man, Soldier, Tyrant, Chapter 13
121. ^ Diana E. E. Kleiner.
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127. ^ Abbott, 138
128. ^ Huzar, Eleanor Goltz (1978). Mark Antony, a biography By Eleanor Goltz Huzar. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-0-8166-0863-8.
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131. ^ Plutarch,
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132. ^ Woolf Greg (2006), Et Tu Brute?—The Murder of Caesar and Political Assassination, 199 pages—ISBN 1-86197-741-7
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134. ^
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135. ^ From the J. C. Rolfe translation of 1914: “…he was stabbed with three and twenty wounds, uttering not a word, but merely a groan at the first stroke, though some have written
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136. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 66.9 Archived 13 February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives
137. ^ Stone, Jon R. (2005). The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations.
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152. ^ Plutarch, Caesar
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153. ^ Cicero, Philippic ii.110: Cicero refers to the divine honours of : “…couch, image, pediment, priest” given to Caesar in the months before his assassination.
154. ^
According to Dio Cassius, 44.6.4.
155. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 17, 45, 60; see also Suetonius, Julius 45.
156. ^ Ronald T. Ridley, “The Dictator’s Mistake: Caesar’s Escape from Sulla,” Historia 49 (2000), pp. 225–226, citing doubters of epilepsy:
F. Kanngiesser, “Notes on the Pathology of the Julian Dynasty,” Glasgow Medical Journal 77 (1912) 428–432; T. Cawthorne, “Julius Caesar and the Falling Sickness,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 51 (1957) 27–30, who prefers Ménière’s
disease; and O. Temkin, The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology (Baltimore 1971), p 162.
157. ^ Bruschi, Fabrizio (2011). “Was Julius Caesar’s epilepsy due to neurocysticercosis?”. Trends
in Parasitology. Cell Press. 27 (9): 373–374. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2011.06.001. PMID 21757405. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
158. ^ McLachlan, Richard S. (2010). “Julius Caesar’s Late Onset Epilepsy: A Case of Historic Proportions”. Canadian Journal of Neurological
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159. ^ Hughes J; Atanassova, E; Boev, K (2004). “Dictator
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160. ^ Gomez J, Kotler J, Long J (1995). “Was Julius Caesar’s epilepsy
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161. ^ H. Schneble (1 January 2003). “Gaius Julius Caesar”. German Epilepsy Museum. Archived from the original on 14 June 2015. Retrieved 28 August
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162. ^ Hodder, Harbour Fraser (September 2003). “Epilepsy and Empire, Caveat Caesar”. Accredited Psychiatry & Medicine. Harvard, Boston: Harvard University. 106 (1): 19. Archived from the original on 12 September 2010. Retrieved 25 October
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163. ^ William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar I.ii.209.
164. ^ Plutarch, Alexander 42; Jeremy Paterson discussing Caesar’s health in general in “Caesar the Man,” A Companion to Julius Caesar (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), p. 130 online. Archived
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165. ^ Galassi, Francesco M.; Ashrafian, Hutan (29 March 2015). “Has the diagnosis of a stroke been overlooked in the symptoms of Julius Caesar?”. Neurological Sciences. 36 (8): 1521–1522. doi:10.1007/s10072-015-2191-4.
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169. ^ Plutarch,
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170. ^ Ronald Syme, “Bastards in the Roman Aristocracy,” pp. 323–327. Thomas Africa thought Syme had recanted this view; see “The Mask of an Assassin: A Psychohistorical Study of M. Junius Brutus,”
Journal of Interdisciplinary History 8 (1978), p. 615, note 28, referring to Syme’s book Sallust (Berkeley, 1964), p. 134. This would appear to be a misreading, given Syme’s fuller argument twenty years later in “No Son for Caesar?” Historia 29
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171. ^ Ramon L. Jiménez (1 January 2000). Caesar Against Rome: The Great Roman Civil War. Praeger. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-275-96620-1.
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172. ^ Suetonius, Julius 49 Archived 30 May 2012 at archive.today
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177. ^ Cicero, Brutus, 252.
178. ^ Edward Courtney, The Fragmentary Latin Poets (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 153–155 and 187–188.
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179. ^ T.P. Wiseman, “The Publication of De Bello Gallico,” Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter (Classical Press of Wales, 1998).
180. ^ Canfora, pp. 10–11
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182. ^ Canfora, p. 10
183. ^ Canfora, pp. 11–12
184. ^ Caesarism, Charisma, and Fate: Historical Sources and Modern Resonances in the Work of Max Weber. Transaction Publishers. 2008. p. 34.
185. ^
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Primary sources
Own writings
• Dickinson College Commentaries: Selections from the Gallic War Archived
31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• Forum Romanum Index to Caesar’s works online Archived 21 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine in Latin and translation
• Works by Julius Caesar in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
• Works by Julius Caesar at
Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Julius Caesar at Internet Archive
• Works by Julius Caesar at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Ancient historians’ writings
• Appian, Book 13 Archived 31 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine (English translation)
• Cassius
Dio, Books 37–44 Archived 20 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine (English translation)
• Plutarch on Antony Archived 6 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine (English translation, Dryden edition)
• Plutarch: The Life of Julius Caesar Archived 13
February 2018 at the Library of Congress Web Archives (English translation)
• Plutarch: The Life of Mark Antony Archived 13 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine (English translation)
• Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar Archived 31 July 2022 at
the Wayback Machine. (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe)
• Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar Archived 1 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified)
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Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics. ISBN 978-0-543-92749-1.
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Luciano (2006). Julius Caesar: The People’s Dictator. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1936-8. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
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978-0-7432-8953-5.
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Michael (1969). Julius Caesar. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Tom (2003). Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-7897-4.
• Jiménez, Ramon L. (2000). Caesar Against Rome: The Great Roman Civil War. Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-96620-1.
• Kleiner, Diana E. E. (2005). Cleopatra
and Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01905-8.
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People. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108943260. ISBN 978-1-108-83784-2. LCCN 2021024626. S2CID 242729962.
• Tucker, Spencer (2010). Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO.
• Thorne, James (2003).
Julius Caesar: Conqueror and Dictator. The Rosen Publishing Group.
• Ward, Allen M.; Heichelheim, Fritz M.; Yeo, Cedric A. (2016). History of the Roman People. Routledge. ISBN 9781315511207. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved
28 November 2016.
• Weinstock, Stefan (1971). Divus Julius. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814287-4.
• Wiseman, T. P. (1998). The Publication of ‘De Bello Gallico’. Classical Press of Wales.
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and Fate: Historical Sources and Modern Resonances in the Work of Max Weber. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1412812146.
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Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/deanmccoyphotos/5738580862/’]