marine coastal ecosystem

 

  • [137][138][139] Besides sea surface temperature, climate change also affects many other physical–chemical characteristics of marine coastal waters (stratification, acidification,
    ventilation)[140][141] as well as the wind regimes that control surface water productivity along the productive coastal upwelling ecosystems.

  • [91][92] Coastal eutrophication and excess nutrient supply can have strong impacts on corals, leading to a decrease in skeletal growth,[85][93][94][95][81] • Pathways for
    guano-derived nitrogen to enter marine food webs[81] • Seabird colonies are nutrient hot spots, especially, for nitrogen and phosphorus[65] Coastal predators[edit] Predicted effects of predators, or lack of predators, on ecosystem services
    (carbon sequestration, coastal protection, and ecosystem stability) in coastal plant communities.

  • [141][147][150] Long-term increases and decreases in plankton productivity have already occurred over the past two decades[151][152] along extensive regions of the Humboldt
    upwelling ecosystem off Chile, and are expected to propagate up the pelagic and benthic food webs.

  • [55] Physically formed by brown macroalgae, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms[56] and are a source for understanding many ecological processes.

  • [69][77][78][79] In the tropics, coral reefs can be found adjacent to islands with large populations of breeding seabirds, and could be potentially affected by local nutrient
    enrichment due to the transport of seabird-derived nutrients in surrounding waters.

  • [23] Vegetated[edit] Global distribution of seagrasses, tidal marshes, and mangroves[24] See also: Blue carbon Vegetated coastal ecosystems occur throughout the world, as
    illustrated in the diagram on the right.

  • [25][24] Vegetated coastal ecosystems typically reside over organic-rich sediments that may be several meters deep and effectively lock up carbon due to low-oxygen conditions
    and other factors that inhibit decomposition at depth.

  • [114] The idea that the extirpation of predators can have far-reaching effects on the persistence of coastal plants and their ecosystem services has become a major motivation
    for their conservation in coastal systems.

  • Across coastal ecosystems, the loss of marine predators appears to negatively affect coastal plant communities and the ecosystem services they provide.

  • [6][7][1] Currently, coastal seas around the world are undergoing major ecological changes driven by human-induced pressures, such as climate change, anthropogenic nutrient
    inputs, overfishing and the spread of invasive species.

  • [38] mangroves dominate salt marshes dominate Coastal wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth and generate vital services that benefit human societies around
    the world.

  • They are extremely productive ecosystems and they provide essential services for more than 75 percent of fishery species and protect shorelines from erosion and flooding.

  • For example, kelp forests can influence coastal oceanographic patterns[57] and provide many ecosystem services.

  • For example, estuaries are areas where freshwater rivers meet the saltwater of the ocean, creating an environment that is home to a wide variety of species, including fish,
    shellfish, and birds.

  • These structures function as some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet, providing habitat and food for a huge range of marine organisms.

  • [72][73] However, although many studies have demonstrated nitrogen enrichment of terrestrial components due to guano deposition across various taxonomic groups,[72][74][75][76]
    only a few have studied its retroaction on marine ecosystems and most of these studies were restricted to temperate regions and high nutrient waters.

  • In coastal plant communities, such as kelp, seagrass meadows, mangrove forests and salt marshes, several studies have documented the far-reaching effects of changing predator
    populations.

  • When marine coastal ecosystems are damaged or destroyed, there can be serious consequences for the marine species that depend on them, as well as for the overall health of
    the ocean ecosystem.

  • [19] Lagoons are also important to the economy as they provide a wide array of ecosystem services in addition to being the home of so many different species.

  • [135] Coral reefs, seagrasses, and mangroves buffer habitats further inland from storms and wave damage as well as participate in a tri-system exchange of mobile fish and
    invertebrates.

  • Combined, these ecosystems cover about 50 million hectares and provide a diverse array of ecosystem services such as fishery production, coastline protection, pollution buffering,
    as well as high rates of carbon sequestration.

  • Causes of habitat conversion vary globally and include conversion to aquaculture, agriculture, forest over-exploitation, industrial use, upstream dams, dredging, eutrophication
    of overlying waters, urban development, and conversion to open water due to accelerated sea-level rise and subsidence.

  • [44] Further, near-shore wetlands act as both essential nursery habitats and feeding grounds for game fish, supporting a diverse group of economically important species.

  • [135] Network ecology[edit] See also: Network ecology and Marine food web § Topological position Intertidal food web highlighting nodes and links of (A) artisanal fisheries
    and (B) plankton[136] To compound things, removal of biomass from the ocean occurs simultaneously with multiple other stressors associated to climate change that compromise the capacity of these socio-ecological systems to respond to perturbations.

  • [16] This can be seen as, of the 32 largest cities in the world, 22 are located on estuaries as they provide many environmental and economic benefits such as crucial habitat
    for many species, and being economic hubs for many coastal communities.

  • Salt marshes are coastal wetlands which thrive on low-energy shorelines in temperate and high-latitude areas, populated with salt-tolerant plants such as cordgrass and marsh
    elder that provide important nursery areas for many species of fish and shellfish.

  • [66] Ecologists are increasingly recognizing the important effects that cross-ecosystem transport of energy and nutrients have on plant and animal populations and communities.

  • [77][80][81] Reef building corals have essential nitrogen needs and, thriving in nutrient-poor tropical waters[82] where nitrogen is a major limiting nutrient for primary
    productivity,[83] they have developed specific adaptations for conserving this element.

  • They provide habitats and food for a diversity of marine life comparable to coral reefs.

  • Due to marine heatwaves that have high warming levels coral reefs are at risk of a great decline, loss of its important structures, and exposure to higher frequency of marine
    heatwaves.

  • Plankton contributes approximately half of the global primary production, supports marine food webs, influences the biogeochemical process in the ocean, and strongly affects
    commercial fisheries.

  • [16] Estuaries also provide essential ecosystem services such as water filtration, habitat protection, erosion control, gas regulation nutrient cycling, and it even gives
    education, recreation and tourism opportunities to people.

  • These ecosystems are vulnerable to various anthropogenic and natural disturbances, such as pollution, overfishing, and coastal development, which have significant impacts
    on their ecological functioning and the services they provide.

  • [60][61] Already due to the combined effects of overfishing and climate change, kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as Tasmania’s
    east coast and the coast of Northern California.

  • [19] Lagoons can be found in on coasts all over the world, on every continent except Antarctica and is an extremely diverse habitat being home to a wide array of species including
    birds, fish, crabs, plankton and more.

  • [98][96] With an estimated habitat loss greater than 50 percent, coastal plant communities are among the world’s most endangered ecosystems.

  • [62][63] The implementation of marine protected areas is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the
    ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors.

  • Directly and indirectly, marine coastal ecosystems provide vast arrays of ecosystem services for humans, such as cycling nutrients and elements, and purifying water by filtering
    pollutants.

  • [27][28] When coastal habitats are degraded or converted to other land uses, the sediment carbon is destabilised or exposed to oxygen, and subsequent increased microbial activity
    releases large amounts of greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere or water column.

  • [14] The low intertidal zone is submerged nearly all the time except during the lowest tides and life is more abundant here due to the protection that the water gives.

  • [155][156][163][164][165][136] Coastal biogeochemistry Globally, eutrophication is one of the major environmental problems in coastal ecosystems.

  • Marine coastal ecosystems include many very different types of marine habitats, each with their own characteristics and species composition.

  • [10][106] Following global declines in marine predators, evidence of trophic cascades in coastal ecosystems started to emerge,[107][108][109][110] with the disturbing realisation
    that they affected more than just populations of lower trophic levels.

  • [1] Coastal systems also contribute to the regulation of climate and nutrient cycles, by efficiently processing anthropogenic emissions from land before they reach the ocean.

  • [15] Estuaries are extremely productive ecosystems that many humans and animal species rely on for various activities.

  • [25][24] Rapid loss of vegetated coastal ecosystems through land-use change has occurred for centuries, and has accelerated in recent decades.

  • Fisheries are characterized by migratory species, and therefore, protecting fisheries in one ecosystem increases fish biomass in others.

  • In slightly deeper waters are kelp forests, underwater ecosystems found in cold, nutrient-rich waters, primarily in temperate regions.

  • Overview Coastal seas are highly productive systems, providing an array of ecosystem services to humankind, such as processing of nutrient effluents from land and climate
    regulation.

  • [153] Previous studies used this framework to assess food web robustness against species extinctions, defined as the fraction of initial species that remain present in the
    ecosystem after a primary extinction.

  • [26] These carbon stocks can exceed those of terrestrial ecosystems, including forests, by several times.

  • [96] Food web theory predicts that current global declines in marine predators could generate unwanted consequences for many marine ecosystems.

  • Coastal protection (storm/wave attenuation) maintains the structure of adjacent ecosystems, and associated ecosystem services, in an offshore-to-onshore direction.

  • [98][96] Understanding the importance of predators in coastal plant communities has been bolstered by their documented ability to influence ecosystem services.

  • [154] Other studies used a dynamic approach, which considers not only the structure and intensity of interactions in a food web, but also the changes in species biomasses
    through time and the indirect effects that these changes have on other species.

  • [105] However, for most large bodied, marine predators (toothed whales, large pelagic fish, sea birds, pinnipeds, and otters) the beginning of their sharp global declines
    occurred over the last century, coinciding with the expansion of coastal human populations and advances in industrial fishing.

  • [53] Salt marshes exist around the world and are needed for healthy ecosystems and a healthy economy.

  • [29][26][30][31][32][33] The potential economic impacts that come from releasing stored coastal blue carbon to the atmosphere are felt worldwide.

  • [50] The mangrove ecosystem is also an important source of food for many species as well as excellent at sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with global mangrove
    carbon storage is estimated at 34 million metric tons per year.

  • [35] Diagram showing connectivity between a vegetated coastal ecosystem for the Penaeid prawn lifecycle indicating that valuations for harvest areas may overlook critical
    importance within the lifecycle.

  • [21] • Coral reef • Global distribution of coral, mangrove, and seagrass diversity • A shy but threatened dugong grazes a seagrass meadow, encouraging regrowth[22] Bivalve
    reefs[edit] Ecosystem services delivered by epibenthic bivalve reefs Bivalve reefs provide coastal protection through erosion control and shoreline stabilization, and modify the physical landscape by ecosystem engineering, thereby providing
    habitat for species by facilitative interactions with other habitats such as tidal flat benthic communities, seagrasses and marshes.

  • Seagrass meadows provide coastal storm protection by the way their leaves absorb energy from waves as they hit the coast.

  • It is predicted that predators, through direct and indirect interactions with lower trophic levels, support increased carbon uptake in plants and soils, protect coasts from
    storm surges and flooding, and support stability and resistance.

 

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