-
In the Charales, which are the algae most closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct tissues within the organism.
-
As microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are found virtually everywhere, harmful microorganisms may be reduced to acceptable levels rather than actually eliminated.
-
[54] Some species such as myxobacteria can aggregate into complex swarming structures, operating as multicellular groups as part of their life cycle,[55] or form clusters
in bacterial colonies such as E.coli. -
Scientists are also considering using microorganisms for living fuel cells,[103] and as a solution for pollution.
-
However, many bacterial species can transfer DNA between individual cells by a horizontal gene transfer process referred to as natural transformation.
-
[50] Archael cells of some species aggregate and transfer DNA from one cell to another through direct contact, particularly under stressful environmental conditions that cause
DNA damage. -
Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and
plants. -
Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction, even between widely divergent
species. -
[19] The discovery of microorganisms such as Euglena that did not fit into either the animal or plant kingdoms, since they were photosynthetic like plants, but motile like
animals, led to the naming of a third kingdom in the 1860s. -
[44] Only now are scientists beginning to realize how common archaea are in the environment, with Thermoproteota (formerly Crenarchaeota) being the most common form of life
in the ocean, dominating ecosystems below 150 m in depth. -
[38] This horizontal gene transfer, coupled with a high mutation rate and other means of transformation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to
survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. -
[1][2] Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment foods and treat sewage, and to produce fuel, enzymes, and other bioactive compounds.
-
[107] Soil[edit] Main article: Soil microbiology Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the
plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses. -
Because microorganisms include most unicellular organisms from all three domains of life they can be extremely diverse.
-
However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms and are not, therefore,
microorganisms by the strict definition. -
[112] Numerous microbial pathogens are capable of sexual processes that appear to facilitate their survival in their infected host.
-
[67] Plants[edit] Main article: Plant The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms.
-
[47] The combined domains of archaea and bacteria make up the most diverse and abundant group of organisms on Earth and inhabit practically all environments where the temperature
is below +140 °C. -
If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are known as pathogens and then they are sometimes referred to as microbes.
-
There are also many multicellular organisms that are microscopic, namely micro-animals, some fungi, and some algae, but these are generally not considered microorganisms.
-
[45][46] These organisms are also common in soil and play a vital role in ammonia oxidation.
-
[26] Classification and structure Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth.
-
No clear examples of archaean pathogens are known,[111] although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some archaean methanogens and human periodontal disease.
-
[71] Bacteria use regulatory networks that allow them to adapt to almost every environmental niche on earth.
-
[48] Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged time in a vacuum, and can be highly resistant to radiation, which may even allow them to survive in space.
-
He also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, then inject it into a healthy animal, and cause illness.
-
[25] He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
-
[49] The biodiversity of the prokaryotes is unknown, but may be very large.
-
[34][35] Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, which shows that the morphology of microorganisms has changed little since
at least the Triassic period. -
For example, mycorrhizal fungi are able to communicate with the root systems of many plants through chemical signals between both the plant and fungi.
-
Microorganisms also make up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms.
-
In general a more diverse set of soil microbes results in fewer plant diseases and higher yield.
-
[7][8] Early modern[edit] Further information: Microscopic discovery of bacteria Akshamsaddin (Turkish scientist) mentioned the microbe in his work Maddat ul-Hayat (The Material
of Life) about two centuries prior to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek’s discovery through experimentation: It is incorrect to assume that diseases appear one by one in humans. -
In adapting to avoid local eavesdroppers, signal divergence could occur and thus, lead to the isolation of plants and microorganisms from the inability to communicate with
other populations. -
Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the study of viruses.
-
A May 2016 estimate, based on laws of scaling from known numbers of species against the size of organism, gives an estimate of perhaps 1 trillion species on the planet, of
which most would be microorganisms. -
They extend terrestrial life into much of the Earth’s hydrosphere, crust and atmosphere, their specific evolutionary adaptation mechanisms to their extreme environment can
be exploited in biotechnology, and their very existence under such extreme conditions increases the potential for extraterrestrial life. -
[93] Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels,[94] and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels.
-
A microorganism, or microbe,[a] is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in its single-celled form or as a colony of cells.
-
[57] Eukaryotes[edit] Main article: Eukaryote Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form are eukaryotes, including humans.
-
[83] The roots of plants create a narrow region known as the rhizosphere that supports many microorganisms known as the root microbiome.
-
However, many eukaryotes are also microorganisms.
-
This qualification is significant since most multicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell called a zygote only at the beginning of their life cycles.
-
[5] The earliest known idea to indicate the possibility of diseases spreading by yet unseen organisms was that of the Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro in a first-century
BC book entitled On Agriculture in which he called the unseen creatures animalcules, and warns against locating a homestead near a swamp:[6] … and because there are bred certain minute creatures that cannot be seen by the eyes, which float
in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and they cause serious diseases. -
This meant that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth.
-
[24] While his work on the tobacco mosaic virus established the basic principles of virology, it was his development of enrichment culturing that had the most immediate impact
on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies. -
This infection occurs through seeds that are so small they cannot be seen but are alive.
-
[108] Human health Human gut flora[edit] Further information: Human microbiota and Human Microbiome Project Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other,
larger organisms. -
[72] Extremophiles Extremophiles are microorganisms that have adapted so that they can survive and even thrive in extreme environments that are normally fatal to most life-forms.
-
Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from one animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy one, and this
caused the healthy animal to become sick. -
-
Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by microorganisms in geochemical processes.
-
Microbes are essential tools in biology as model organisms and have been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism.
-
[72][73] A network of interactions among diverse types of molecules including DNA, RNA, proteins and metabolites, is utilised by the bacteria to achieve regulation of gene
expression. -
The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms.
-
Some types of microorganisms have adapted to extreme environments and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles.
-
[53] Bacteria function and reproduce as individual cells, but they can often aggregate in multicellular colonies.
-
Chloroplasts produce energy from light by photosynthesis, and were also originally symbiotic bacteria.
Works Cited
[‘The word microorganism (/ˌmaɪkroʊˈɔːrɡənɪzəm/) uses combining forms of micro- (from the Greek: μικρός, mikros, “small”) and organism from the Greek: ὀργανισμός, organismós, “organism”). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated
(micro-organism), especially in older texts. The informal synonym microbe (/ˈmaɪkroʊb/) comes from μικρός, mikrós, “small” and βίος, bíos, “life”.
o Tyrell, Kelly April (18 December 2017). “Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before
3.5 billion years ago”. University of Wisconsin–Madison. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
o ^ Schopf, J. William; Kitajima, Kouki; Spicuzza, Michael J.; Kudryavtsev, Anatolly B.; Valley, John W. (2017). “SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of
microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions”. PNAS. 115 (1): 53–58. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115…53S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1718063115. PMC 5776830. PMID 29255053.
o ^ Jump up to:a b Jeffery D Long (2013). Jainism: An Introduction.
I.B.Tauris. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-85771-392-6.
o ^ Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 315. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
o ^ Paul Dundas (2003). The Jains.
Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-134-50165-6.
o ^ Jump up to:a b Varro on Agriculture 1, xii Loeb
o ^ Tschanz, David W. “Arab Roots of European Medicine”. Heart Views. 4 (2). Archived from the original on 3 May 2011.
o ^ Colgan, Richard (2009).
Advice to the Young Physician: On the Art of Medicine. Springer. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-4419-1033-2.
o ^ Taşköprülüzâde: Shaqaiq-e Numaniya, v. 1, p. 48
o ^ Osman Şevki Uludağ: Beş Buçuk Asırlık Türk Tabâbet Tarihi (Five and a Half Centuries of Turkish
Medical History). Istanbul, 1969, pp. 35–36
o ^ Nutton, Vivian (1990). “The Reception of Fracastoro’s Theory of Contagion: The Seed That Fell among Thorns?”. Osiris. 2nd Series, Vol. 6, Renaissance Medical Learning: Evolution of a Tradition: 196–234.
doi:10.1086/368701. JSTOR 301787. PMID 11612689. S2CID 37260514.
o ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. (1753). “Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, concerning the Worms in Sheeps Livers, Gnats, and Animalcula in the Excrements of Frogs”. Philosophical
Transactions. 22 (260–276): 509–18. Bibcode:1700RSPT…22..509V. doi:10.1098/rstl.1700.0013.
o ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. (1753). “Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, F. R. S. concerning Green Weeds Growing in Water, and Some Animalcula Found
about Them”. Philosophical Transactions. 23 (277–288): 1304–11. Bibcode:1702RSPT…23.1304V. doi:10.1098/rstl.1702.0042. S2CID 186209549.
o ^ Lane, Nick (2015). “The Unseen World: Reflections on Leeuwenhoek (1677) ‘Concerning Little Animal'”.
Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 370 (1666): 20140344. doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0344. PMC 4360124. PMID 25750239.
o ^ Payne, A.S. The Cleere Observer: A Biography of Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, p. 13, Macmillan, 1970
o ^ Gest, H. (2005). “The remarkable
vision of Robert Hooke (1635–1703): first observer of the microbial world”. Perspect. Biol. Med. 48 (2): 266–72. doi:10.1353/pbm.2005.0053. PMID 15834198. S2CID 23998841.
o ^ Bordenave, G. (2003). “Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)”. Microbes Infect. 5
(6): 553–60. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(03)00075-3. PMID 12758285.
o ^ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905 Nobelprize.org Accessed 22 November 2006.
o ^ O’Brien, S.; Goedert, J. (1996). “HIV causes AIDS: Koch’s postulates fulfilled”.
Curr Opin Immunol. 8 (5): 613–18. doi:10.1016/S0952-7915(96)80075-6. PMID 8902385.
o ^ Scamardella, J. M. (1999). “Not plants or animals: a brief history of the origin of Kingdoms Protozoa, Protista and Protoctista” (PDF). International Microbiology.
2 (4): 207–221. PMID 10943416. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
o ^ Rothschild, L. J. (1989). “Protozoa, Protista, Protoctista: what’s in a name?”. J Hist Biol. 22 (2): 277–305. doi:10.1007/BF00139515.
PMID 11542176. S2CID 32462158.
o ^ Solomon, Eldra Pearl; Berg, Linda R.; Martin, Diana W., eds. (2005). “Kingdoms or Domains?”. Biology (7th ed.). Brooks/Cole Thompson Learning. pp. 421–7. ISBN 978-0-534-49276-2.
o ^ Jump up to:a b Madigan, M.;
Martinko, J., eds. (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (13th ed.). Pearson Education. p. 1096. ISBN 978-0-321-73551-5.
o ^ Johnson, J. (2001) [1998]. “Martinus Willem Beijerinck”. APSnet. American Phytopathological Society. Archived from the
original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 2 May 2010. Retrieved from Internet Archive 12 January 2014.
o ^ Paustian, T.; Roberts, G. (2009). “Beijerinck and Winogradsky Initiate the Field of Environmental Microbiology”. Through the Microscope: A Look
at All Things Small (3rd ed.). Textbook Consortia. § 1–14. Archived from the original on 14 September 2008. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
o ^ Keen, E. C. (2012). “Felix d’Herelle and Our Microbial Future”. Future Microbiology. 7 (12): 1337–1339. doi:10.2217/fmb.12.115.
PMID 23231482.
o ^ Lim, Daniel V. (2001). “Microbiology”. eLS. John Wiley. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0000459. ISBN 978-0-470-01590-2.
o ^ “What is Microbiology?”. highveld.com. Retrieved 2 June 2017.
o ^ Cann, Alan (2011). Principles of Molecular
Virology (5 ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-384939-7.
o ^ Schopf, J. (2006). “Fossil evidence of Archaean life”. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 361 (1470): 869–885. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1834. PMC 1578735. PMID 16754604.
o ^ Altermann,
W.; Kazmierczak, J. (2003). “Archean microfossils: a reappraisal of early life on Earth”. Res Microbiol. 154 (9): 611–7. doi:10.1016/j.resmic.2003.08.006. PMID 14596897.
o ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (2006). “Cell evolution and Earth history: stasis and
revolution”. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 361 (1470): 969–1006. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1842. PMC 1578732. PMID 16754610.
o ^ Schopf, J. (1994). “Disparate rates, differing fates: tempo and mode of evolution changed from the Precambrian to
the Phanerozoic”. PNAS. 91 (15): 6735–6742. Bibcode:1994PNAS…91.6735S. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.15.6735. PMC 44277. PMID 8041691.
o ^ Stanley, S. (May 1973). “An Ecological Theory for the Sudden Origin of Multicellular Life in the Late Precambrian”.
PNAS. 70 (5): 1486–1489. Bibcode:1973PNAS…70.1486S. doi:10.1073/pnas.70.5.1486. PMC 433525. PMID 16592084.
o ^ DeLong, E.; Pace, N. (2001). “Environmental diversity of bacteria and archaea”. Syst Biol. 50 (4): 470–8. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.321.8828.
doi:10.1080/106351501750435040. PMID 12116647.
o ^ Schmidt, A.; Ragazzi, E.; Coppellotti, O.; Roghi, G. (2006). “A microworld in Triassic amber”. Nature. 444 (7121): 835. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..835S. doi:10.1038/444835a. PMID 17167469. S2CID 4401723.
o ^
Schirber, Michael (27 July 2014). “Microbe’s Innovation May Have Started Largest Extinction Event on Earth”. Space.com. Astrobiology Magazine. That spike in nickel allowed methanogens to take off.
o ^ Wolska, K. (2003). “Horizontal DNA transfer
between bacteria in the environment”. Acta Microbiol Pol. 52 (3): 233–243. PMID 14743976.
o ^ Enright, M.; Robinson, D.; Randle, G.; Feil, E.; Grundmann, H.; Spratt, B. (May 2002). “The evolutionary history of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA)”. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 99 (11): 7687–7692. Bibcode:2002PNAS…99.7687E. doi:10.1073/pnas.122108599. PMC 124322. PMID 12032344.
o ^ “Deep sea microorganisms and the origin of the eukaryotic cell” (PDF). Retrieved 24 October 2017.
o ^
Yamaguchi, Masashi; et al. (1 December 2012). “Prokaryote or eukaryote? A unique microorganism from the deep sea”. Journal of Electron Microscopy. 61 (6): 423–431. doi:10.1093/jmicro/dfs062. PMID 23024290.
o ^ Woese, C.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M.
(1990). “Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya”. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 87 (12): 4576–9. Bibcode:1990PNAS…87.4576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. PMC 54159. PMID 2112744.
o ^ De Rosa, M.;
Gambacorta, A.; Gliozzi, A. (1 March 1986). “Structure, biosynthesis, and physicochemical properties of archaebacterial lipids”. Microbiol. Rev. 50 (1): 70–80. doi:10.1128/mmbr.50.1.70-80.1986. PMC 373054. PMID 3083222.
o ^ Robertson, C.; Harris,
J.; Spear, J.; Pace, N. (2005). “Phylogenetic diversity and ecology of environmental Archaea”. Curr Opin Microbiol. 8 (6): 638–42. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2005.10.003. PMID 16236543.
o ^ Karner, M.B.; DeLong, E.F.; Karl, D.M. (2001). “Archaeal dominance
in the mesopelagic zone of the Pacific Ocean”. Nature. 409 (6819): 507–10. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..507K. doi:10.1038/35054051. PMID 11206545. S2CID 6789859.
o ^ Sinninghe Damsté, J.S.; Rijpstra, W.I.; Hopmans, E.C.; Prahl, F.G.; Wakeham, S.G.; Schouten,
S. (June 2002). “Distribution of Membrane Lipids of Planktonic Crenarchaeota in the Arabian Sea”. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68 (6): 2997–3002. Bibcode:2002ApEnM..68.2997S. doi:10.1128/AEM.68.6.2997-3002.2002. PMC 123986. PMID 12039760.
o ^ Leininger,
S.; Urich, T.; Schloter, M.; Schwark, L.; Qi, J.; Nicol, G. W.; Prosser, J. I.; Schuster, S. C.; Schleper, C. (2006). “Archaea predominate among ammonia-oxidizing prokaryotes in soils”. Nature. 442 (7104): 806–809. Bibcode:2006Natur.442..806L. doi:10.1038/nature04983.
PMID 16915287. S2CID 4380804.
o ^ Jump up to:a b Gold, T. (1992). “The deep, hot biosphere”. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89 (13): 6045–9. Bibcode:1992PNAS…89.6045G. doi:10.1073/pnas.89.13.6045. PMC 49434. PMID 1631089.
o ^ Whitman, W.; Coleman,
D.; Wiebe, W. (1998). “Prokaryotes: The unseen majority”. PNAS. 95 (12): 6578–83. Bibcode:1998PNAS…95.6578W. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578. PMC 33863. PMID 9618454.
o ^ Staff (2 May 2016). “Researchers find that Earth may be home to 1 trillion species”.
National Science Foundation. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
o ^ van Wolferen M, Wagner A, van der Does C, Albers SV (2016). “The archaeal Ced system imports DNA”. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 113 (9): 2496–501. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113.2496V. doi:10.1073/pnas.1513740113.
PMC 4780597. PMID 26884154.
o ^ Bernstein H, Bernstein C. Sexual communication in archaea, the precursor to meiosis. pp. 103-117 in Biocommunication of Archaea (Guenther Witzany, ed.) 2017. Springer International Publishing ISBN 978-3-319-65535-2
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-65536-9
o ^ Schulz, H.; Jorgensen, B. (2001). “Big bacteria”. Annu Rev Microbiol. 55: 105–37. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.105. PMID 11544351.
o ^ Shapiro, J.A. (1998). “Thinking about bacterial populations as multicellular
organisms” (PDF). Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 52: 81–104. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.52.1.81. PMID 9891794. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 July 2011.
o ^ Muñoz-Dorado, J.; Marcos-Torres, F. J.; García-Bravo, E.; Moraleda-Muñoz, A.; Pérez, J. (2016).
“Myxobacteria: Moving, Killing, Feeding, and Surviving Together”. Frontiers in Microbiology. 7: 781. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.00781. PMC 4880591. PMID 27303375.
o ^ Johnsbor, O.; Eldholm, V.; Håvarstein, L.S. (December 2007). “Natural genetic transformation:
prevalence, mechanisms and function”. Res. Microbiol. 158 (10): 767–78. doi:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.09.004. PMID 17997281.
o ^ Eagon, R. (1962). “Pseudomonas Natriegens, a Marine Bacterium With a Generation Time of Less Than 10 Minutes”. J Bacteriol.
83 (4): 736–7. doi:10.1128/JB.83.4.736-737.1962. PMC 279347. PMID 13888946.
o ^ Eukaryota: More on Morphology. (Retrieved 10 October 2006)
o ^ Jump up to:a b Dyall, S.; Brown, M.; Johnson, P. (2004). “Ancient invasions: from endosymbionts to organelles”.
Science. 304 (5668): 253–7. Bibcode:2004Sci…304..253D. doi:10.1126/science.1094884. PMID 15073369. S2CID 19424594.
o ^ See coenocyte.
o ^ Bernstein, H.; Bernstein, C.; Michod, R.E. (2012). “Chapter 1”. In Kimura, Sakura; Shimizu, Sora (eds.).
DNA repair as the primary adaptive function of sex in bacteria and eukaryotes. DNA Repair: New Research. Nova Sci. Publ. pp. 1–49. ISBN 978-1-62100-808-8.
o ^ Cavalier-Smith T (1 December 1993). “Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla”. Microbiol. Rev.
57 (4): 953–994. doi:10.1128/mmbr.57.4.953-994.1993. PMC 372943. PMID 8302218.
o ^ Corliss JO (1992). “Should there be a separate code of nomenclature for the protists?”. BioSystems. 28 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1016/0303-2647(92)90003-H. PMID 1292654.
o ^
Devreotes P (1989). “Dictyostelium discoideum: a model system for cell-cell interactions in development”. Science. 245 (4922): 1054–8. Bibcode:1989Sci…245.1054D. doi:10.1126/science.2672337. PMID 2672337.
o ^ Slapeta, J; Moreira, D; López-García,
P. (2005). “The extent of protist diversity: insights from molecular ecology of freshwater eukaryotes”. Proc. Biol. Sci. 272 (1576): 2073–2081. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3195. PMC 1559898. PMID 16191619.
o ^ Moreira, D.; López-García, P. (2002). “The
molecular ecology of microbial eukaryotes unveils a hidden world” (PDF). Trends Microbiol. 10 (1): 31–8. doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(01)02257-0. PMID 11755083.
o ^ Kumamoto, C.A.; Vinces, M.D. (2005). “Contributions of hyphae and hypha-co-regulated genes
to Candida albicans virulence”. Cell. Microbiol. 7 (11): 1546–1554. doi:10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00616.x. PMID 16207242.
o ^ Thomas, David C. (2002). Seaweeds. London: Natural History Museum. ISBN 978-0-565-09175-0.
o ^ Szewzyk, U; Szewzyk, R;
Stenström, T. (1994). “Thermophilic, anaerobic bacteria isolated from a deep borehole in granite in Sweden”. PNAS. 91 (5): 1810–3. Bibcode:1994PNAS…91.1810S. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.5.1810. PMC 43253. PMID 11607462.
o ^ Horneck, G. (1981). “Survival
of microorganisms in space: a review”. Adv Space Res. 1 (14): 39–48. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(81)90241-6. PMID 11541716.
o ^ Rousk, Johannes; Bengtson, Per (2014). “Microbial regulation of global biogeochemical cycles”. Frontiers in Microbiology. 5
(2): 210–25. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2014.00103. PMC 3954078. PMID 24672519.
o ^ Jump up to:a b Filloux, A.A.M., ed. (2012). Bacterial Regulatory Networks. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-908230-03-4.
o ^ Gross, R.; Beier, D., eds. (2012). Two-Component
Systems in Bacteria. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-908230-08-9.
o ^ Requena, J.M., ed. (2012). Stress Response in Microbiology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-908230-04-1.
o ^ Strain 121, a hyperthermophilic archaea, has been shown to
reproduce at 121 °C (250 °F), and survive at 130 °C (266 °F).[1]
o ^ Some Psychrophilic bacteria can grow at −17 °C (1 °F)),[2] and can survive near absolute zero).”Earth microbes on the Moon”. Archived from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved
20 July 2009.
o ^ Dyall-Smith, Mike, HALOARCHAEA, University of Melbourne. See also Haloarchaea.
o ^ Olsson, Karen; Keis, Stefanie; Morgan, Hugh W.; Dimroth, Peter; Cook, Gregory M. (15 January 2003). “Bacillus alcalophilus can grow at up to pH
11.5” (PDF). Journal of Bacteriology. 185 (2): 461–465. doi:10.1128/JB.185.2.461-465.2003. PMC 145327. PMID 12511491.
o ^ Picrophilus can grow at pH −0.06.[3]
o ^ The piezophilic bacteria Halomonas salaria requires a pressure of 1,000 atm; nanobes,
a speculative organism, have been reportedly found in the earth’s crust at 2,000 atm.[4]
o ^ Anderson, A. W.; Nordan, H. C.; Cain, R. F.; Parrish, G.; Duggan, D. (1956). “Studies on a radio-resistant micrococcus. I. Isolation, morphology, cultural
characteristics, and resistance to gamma radiation”. Food Technol. 10 (1): 575–577.
o ^ Cavicchioli, R. (2002). “Extremophiles and the search for extraterrestrial life” (PDF). Astrobiology. 2 (3): 281–292. Bibcode:2002AsBio…2..281C. CiteSeerX
10.1.1.472.3179. doi:10.1089/153110702762027862. PMID 12530238.
o ^ Barea, J.; Pozo, M.; Azcón, R.; Azcón-Aguilar, C. (2005). “Microbial co-operation in the rhizosphere”. J Exp Bot. 56 (417): 1761–78. doi:10.1093/jxb/eri197. PMID 15911555.
o ^
Gottel, Neil R.; Castro, Hector F.; Kerley, Marilyn; Yang, Zamin; Pelletier, Dale A.; Podar, Mircea; Karpinets, Tatiana; Uberbacher, Ed; Tuskan, Gerald A.; Vilgalys, Rytas; Doktycz, Mitchel J.; Schadt, Christopher W. (2011). “Distinct Microbial Communities
within the Endosphere and Rhizosphere of Populus deltoides Roots across Contrasting Soil Types”. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 77 (17): 5934–5944. Bibcode:2011ApEnM..77.5934G. doi:10.1128/AEM.05255-11. PMC 3165402. PMID 21764952.
o ^ Rebolleda-Gómez
M, Wood CW (2019). “Unclear Intentions: Eavesdropping in Microbial and Plant Systems”. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 7 (385). doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00385.
o ^ “What is a lichen?”. Australian National Botanic Gardens. Retrieved 30 September
2017.
o ^ “Introduction to Lichens – An Alliance between Kingdoms”. University of California Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
o ^ “Dairy Microbiology”. University of Guelph. Retrieved 9 October 2006.
o ^ Hui, Y.H.; Meunier-Goddik,
L.; Josephsen, J.; Nip, W.K.; Stanfield, P.S. (2004). Handbook of Food and Beverage Fermentation Technology. CRC Press. pp. 27 and passim. ISBN 978-0-8247-5122-7.
o ^ Gray, N.F. (2004). Biology of Wastewater Treatment. Imperial College Press. p.
1164. ISBN 978-1-86094-332-4.
o ^ Tabatabaei, Meisam (2010). “Importance of the methanogenic archaea populations in anaerobic wastewater treatments” (PDF). Process Biochemistry. 45 (8): 1214–1225. doi:10.1016/j.procbio.2010.05.017.
o ^ Kitani,
Osumu; Carl W. Hall (1989). Biomass Handbook. Taylor & Francis US. p. 256. ISBN 978-2-88124-269-4.
o ^ Pimental, David (2007). Food, Energy, and Society. CRC Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-1-4200-4667-0.
o ^ Tickell, Joshua; et al. (2000). From the Fryer
to the Fuel Tank: The Complete Guide to Using Vegetable Oil as an Alternative Fuel. Biodiesel America. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-9707227-0-6.
o ^ Inslee, Jay; et al. (2008). Apollo’s Fire: Igniting America’s Clean Energy Economy. Island Press. p. 157.
ISBN 978-1-59726-175-3.
o ^ Jump up to:a b Sauer, Michael; Porro, Danilo; et al. (2008). “Microbial production of organic acids: expanding the markets” (PDF). Trends in Biotechnology. 26 (2): 100–8. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2007.11.006. PMID 18191255.
o ^
Babashamsi, Mohammed; et al. (2009). “Production and Purification of Streptokinase by Protected Affinity Chromatography”. Avicenna Journal of Medical Biotechnology. 1 (1): 47–51. PMC 3558118. PMID 23407807. Streptokinase is an extracellular protein,
extracted from certain strains of beta hemolytic streptococcus.
o ^ Borel, J.F.; Kis, Z.L.; Beveridge, T. (1995). “The history of the discovery and development of Cyclosporin”. In Merluzzi, V.J.; Adams, J. (eds.). The search for anti-inflammatory
drugs case histories from concept to clinic. Boston: Birkhäuser. pp. 27–63. ISBN 978-1-4615-9846-6.
o ^ Biology textbook for class XII. National council of educational research and training. 2006. p. 183. ISBN 978-81-7450-639-9.
o ^ Castrillo,
J.I.; Oliver, S.G. (2004). “Yeast as a touchstone in post-genomic research: strategies for integrative analysis in functional genomics”. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 37 (1): 93–106. doi:10.5483/BMBRep.2004.37.1.093. PMID 14761307.
o ^ Suter, B.; Auerbach,
D.; Stagljar, I. (2006). “Yeast-based functional genomics and proteomics technologies: the first 15 years and beyond”. BioTechniques. 40 (5): 625–44. doi:10.2144/000112151. PMID 16708762.
o ^ Sunnerhagen, P. (2002). “Prospects for functional genomics
in Schizosaccharomyces pombe”. Curr. Genet. 42 (2): 73–84. doi:10.1007/s00294-002-0335-6. PMID 12478386. S2CID 22067347.
o ^ Soni, S.K. (2007). Microbes: A Source of Energy for 21st Century. New India Publishing. ISBN 978-81-89422-14-1.
o ^ Moses,
Vivian; et al. (1999). Biotechnology: The Science and the Business. CRC Press. p. 563. ISBN 978-90-5702-407-8.
o ^ Langford, Roland E. (2004). Introduction to Weapons of Mass Destruction: Radiological, Chemical, and Biological. Wiley-IEEE. p. 140.
ISBN 978-0-471-46560-7.
o ^ Novak, Matt (3 November 2016). “The Largest Bioterrorism Attack in US History Was An Attempt To Swing An Election”. Gizmodo.
o ^ Takahashi, Hiroshi; Keim, Paul; Kaufmann, Arnold F.; Keys, Christine; Smith, Kimothy L.;
Taniguchi, Kiyosu; Inouye, Sakae; Kurata, Takeshi (2004). “Bacillus anthracis Bioterrorism Incident, Kameido, Tokyo, 1993”. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 10 (1): 117–20. doi:10.3201/eid1001.030238. PMC 3322761. PMID 15112666.
o ^ Vrieze, Jop de
(14 August 2015). “The littlest farmhands”. Science. 349 (6249): 680–683. Bibcode:2015Sci…349..680D. doi:10.1126/science.349.6249.680. PMID 26273035.
o ^ O’Hara, A.; Shanahan, F. (2006). “The gut flora as a forgotten organ”. EMBO Rep. 7 (7):
688–93. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400731. PMC 1500832. PMID 16819463.
o ^ Schlundt, Jorgen. “Health and Nutritional Properties of Probiotics in Food including Powder Milk with Live Lactic Acid Bacteria” (PDF). Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation
on Evaluation of Health and Nutritional Properties of Probiotics in Food Including Powder Milk with Live Lactic Acid Bacteria. FAO / WHO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
o ^ Eckburg, P.; Lepp, P.;
Relman, D. (2003). “Archaea and Their Potential Role in Human Disease”. Infect Immun. 71 (2): 591–6. doi:10.1128/IAI.71.2.591-596.2003. PMC 145348. PMID 12540534.
o ^ Lepp, P.; Brinig, M.; Ouverney, C.; Palm, K.; Armitage, G.; Relman, D. (2004).
“Methanogenic Archaea and human periodontal disease”. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 101 (16): 6176–81. Bibcode:2004PNAS..101.6176L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0308766101. PMC 395942. PMID 15067114.
o ^ Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE (January 2018). “Sex in
microbial pathogens”. Infect Genet Evol. 57: 8–25. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.024. PMID 29111273.
o ^ “Hygiene”. World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 23 August 2004. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
o ^ “The Five Keys to Safer
Food Programme”. World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 7 December 2003. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/63567936@N00/4588904196/’]