rastafari

 

  • [47] Rastas regard the Bible as an authentic account of early black African history and of their place as God’s favoured people.

  • [60] However, practitioners reject the traditional Christian view of Jesus, particularly the depiction of him as a white European, believing that this is a perversion of the
    truth.

  • While some still hold this belief, non-black Rastas are now widely accepted in the movement.

  • [104] Rastas typically believe that black Africans are God’s chosen people, meaning that they made a covenant with him and thus have a special responsibility.

  • [12] Many Rastas nevertheless reject descriptions of Rastafari as a religion, instead referring to it as a “way of life”,[13] a “philosophy”,[14] or a “spirituality”.

  • [34] However, the term is disparaged by many Rastafari, who believe that the use of -ism implies religious doctrine and institutional organisation, things they wish to avoid.

  • [146] In keeping with their views on death, Rastas eschew celebrating physical death and often avoid funerals,[147] also repudiating the practice of ancestor veneration that
    is common among traditional African religions.

  • He is of central importance to Rastas, many of whom regard him as the Second Coming of Jesus and thus God incarnate in human form.

  • [21] In 1989, a British Industrial Tribunal concluded that—for the purposes of the Race Relations Act 1976—Rastafarians could be considered an ethnic group because they have
    a long, shared heritage which distinguished them from other groups, their own cultural traditions, a common language, and a common religion.

  • [139] A view then common in the Rasta community was that the world’s white people would wipe themselves out through nuclear war,[140] with black Africans then ruling the world,
    something that they argued was prophesied in the Book of Daniel.

  • [40] They believe the Bible to be key to understanding both the past and the present and for predicting the future,[40] while also regarding it as a source book from which
    they can form and justify their beliefs and practices.

  • [118] Rastas turn to Biblical scripture to explain the Atlantic slave trade,[119] believing that the enslavement, exile, and exploitation of black Africans was punishment
    for failing to live up to their status as Jah’s chosen people.

  • [118] Rastas use “Zion” either for Ethiopia specifically or for Africa more broadly, the latter having an almost mythological identity in Rasta discourse.

  • [153] Some Rastas express the view that they should adhere to what they regard as African laws rather than the laws of Babylon, thus defending their involvement in certain
    acts which may be illegal in the countries that they are living in,[154] for example defending the smoking of cannabis as a religious sacrament.

  • [40] Because of what they regard as the corruption of the Bible, Rastas also turn to other sources that they believe shed light on black African history.

  • [50] They also believe that the Bible’s true meaning has been warped, both through mistranslation into other languages and by deliberate manipulation by those seeking to deny
    black Africans their history.

  • [30] As well as being the religion’s name, “Rastafari” is also used for the religion’s practitioners themselves.

  • [202] Rastas typically see the growing acceptance of birth control and homosexuality in Western society as evidence of the degeneration of Babylon as it approaches its apocalyptic
    end.

  • [62] Many Rastas regard Christianity as the creation of the white man;[63] they treat it with suspicion out of the view that the oppressors (white Europeans) and the oppressed
    (black Africans) cannot share the same God.

  • [129] Rather, many Rastas saw the idea of returning to Africa in a metaphorical sense, entailing the restoration of their pride and self-confidence as people of black African
    descent.

  • [103] Other Rasta sects believe that an “African” identity is not inherently linked to black skin but rather is about whether an individual displays an African “attitude”
    or “spirit”.

  • [152] It endorses the idea that Africa is the “natural” abode of black Africans, a continent where they can live according to African culture and tradition and be themselves
    on a physical, emotional, and intellectual level.

  • [72] Many, although not all, believe that the Ethiopian monarch was the Second Coming of Jesus,[73] legitimising this by reference to their interpretation of the nineteenth
    chapter of the Book of Revelation.

  • [181] Although men and women took part alongside each other in early Rasta rituals, from the late 1940s and 1950s the Rasta community increasingly encouraged gender segregation
    for ceremonies.

  • [206] Grounding[edit] A group of Rastas in Liberia celebrating Marcus Garvey’s birthday The term “grounding” is used among Rastas to refer to the establishment of relationships
    between like-minded practitioners.

  • [132] Rastafari women usually accept this subordinate position and regard it as their duty to obey their men;[170] the academic Maureen Rowe suggested that women were willing
    to join the religion despite its restrictions because they valued the life of structure and discipline it provided.

  • [78] Members of the Twelve Tribes of Israel denomination, for instance, reject the idea that Selassie was the Second Coming, arguing that this event has yet to occur.

  • Definition Rastafari has been described as a religion,[1] meeting many of the proposed definitions for what constitutes a religion,[2] and is legally recognised as such in
    various countries.

  • [102] This is similar to beliefs in Judaism,[103] although many Rastas believe that contemporary Jews’ status as the descendants of the ancient Israelites is a false claim.

  • Rastas accord key importance to Haile Selassie, the emperor of Ethiopia between 1930 and 1974; many regard him as the Second Coming of Jesus and Jah incarnate, while others
    see him as a human prophet who fully recognised Jah’s presence in every individual.

  • [114] Rastas perceive the exile of the black African diaspora in Babylon as an experience of great suffering,[116] with the term “suffering” having a significant place in
    Rasta discourse.

  • [101] Practitioners of Rastafari identify themselves with the ancient Israelites—God’s chosen people in the Old Testament—and believe that black Africans broadly or Rastas
    more specifically are either the descendants or the reincarnations of this ancient people.

  • [103] Black supremacy was a theme early in the movement, with the belief in the existence of a distinctly black African race that is superior to other racial groups.

  • There is no central authority in control of the movement and much diversity exists among practitioners, who are known as Rastafari, Rastafarians, or Rastas.

  • [143] He suggested that this attitude stemmed from the large numbers of young people that were then members of the movement, and who had thus seen only few Rastas die.

  • [194] Rastafari typically rejects feminism,[195] although since the 1970s growing numbers of Rasta women have called for greater gender equity in the movement.

  • [118] Rastas often expect the white-dominated society to dismiss their beliefs as false, and when this happens they see it as confirmation of the correctness of their faith.

  • It is classified as both a new religious movement and a social movement by scholars of religion.

  • [a][97] Afrocentrism and views on race[edit] According to Clarke, Rastafari is “concerned above all else with black consciousness, with rediscovering the identity, personal
    and racial, of black people”.

  • [48] Rastas commonly perceive the final book of the Bible, the Book of Revelation, as the most important part, because they see its contents as having particular significance
    for the world’s present situation.

  • [162] The Rasta tendency to believe that socio-political change is inevitable opens the religion up to the criticism from the political left that it encourages adherents to
    do little or nothing to alter the status quo.

  • [95] Critics of Rastafari have used this as evidence that Rasta theological beliefs are incorrect,[96] although some Rastas take Selassie’s denials as evidence that he was
    indeed the incarnation of God, based on their reading of the Gospel of Luke.

  • [156] The scholar Maureen Warner-Lewis observed that Rastafari combined a “radical, even revolutionary” stance on socio-political issues, particularly regarding race, with
    a “profoundly traditional” approach to “philosophical conservatism” on other religious issues.

  • [69] He remains the central figure in Rastafari ideology,[70] and although all Rastas hold him in esteem, precise interpretations of his identity differ.

  • [158] Some Rastas have promoted activism as a means of achieving socio-political reform, while others believe in awaiting change that will be brought about through divine
    intervention in human affairs.

  • [38] Rastas place great emphasis on the idea that personal experience and intuitive understanding should be used to determine the truth or validity of a particular belief
    or practice.

  • [96] By the movement’s fourth decade, the desire for physical repatriation to Africa had declined among Rastas,[128] a change influenced by observation of the 1983–1985 famine
    in Ethiopia.

  • [66] Rastas therefore often view Christian preachers as deceivers[65] and regard Christianity as being guilty of furthering the oppression of the African diaspora,[67] frequently
    referring to it as having perpetrated “mental enslavement”.

  • [148] Morality, ethics, and gender roles[edit] Most Rastas share a pair of fundamental moral principles known as the “two great commandments”: love of God and love of neighbour.

  • [127] During the first three decades of the Rastafari movement, it placed strong emphasis on the need for the African diaspora to be repatriated to Africa.

  • [131] Some Rastas seek to transform Western society so that they may more comfortably live within it rather than seeking to move to Africa.

  • [29] It is unknown why the early Rastas adopted this form of Haile Selassie’s name as the basis of the term for their religion.

  • [124] Many Rastas use the term “Ethiopia” as a synonym for “Africa”;[125] thus, Rastas in Ghana for instance described themselves as already living within “Ethiopia”.

  • [211] This is a discussion among assembled Rastas about the religion’s principles and their relevance to current events.

  • [3] Multiple scholars of religion have categorised Rastafari as a new religious movement,[4] while some scholars have also classified it as a sect,[5] a cult,[6] and a revitalisation
    movement.

  • [37] Within the movement, attempts to summarise Rastafari belief have never been accorded the status of a catechism or creed.

  • [166] It espouses patriarchal principles,[167] including the idea that women should submit to male leadership.

  • [79] Rastas holding to this view sometimes regard the deification of Haile Selassie as naïve or ignorant,[80] in some cases thinking it as dangerous to worship a human being
    as God.

  • [105] Rastafari espouses the view that this, the true identity of black Africans, has been lost and needs to be reclaimed.

  • [198] Both contraception and abortion are usually censured,[199] and a common claim in Rasta discourse is that these were inventions of Babylon to decrease the black African
    birth-rate.

  • [120] Many Rastas, adopting a Pan-Africanist ethos, have criticised the division of Africa into nation-states, regarding this as a Babylonian development,[121] and are often
    hostile to capitalist resource extraction from the continent.

  • [53] Many Rastas also treat the Kebra Nagast, a 14th-century Ethiopian text, as a source through which to interpret the Bible.

  • [126] Other Rastas apply the term “Zion” to Jamaica or they use it to describe a state of mind.

  • [9] Although Rastafari focuses on Africa as a source of identity, it is a product of creolisation processes in the Americas,[10] described by the Hispanic studies scholars
    Margarite Fernández Olmos and Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert as “a Creole religion, rooted in African, European, and Indian practices and beliefs”.

  • [190] Rastafari places great importance on family life and the raising of children,[191] with reproduction being encouraged.

  • [206] When they do oversee ritual meetings, they are often responsible for helping to interpret current events in terms of Biblical scripture.

  • [11] The scholar Ennis B. Edmonds also suggested that Rastafari was “emerging” as a world religion, not because of the number of its adherents, but because of its global spread.

 

Works Cited

[‘ Biblical citations[edit]
1. ^ Luke 14:11
2. ^ Daniel 2:31–32
3. ^ Genesis 1:29
4. ^ Psalms 18:8
5. ^ Revelation 22:2
6. ^ Leviticus 11:41–42
7. ^ Numbers 6:5–6
8. ^ Revelation 5:2–3; Revelation 19:16
9. ^ Daniel 7:3
10. ^ Psalms
68:31
11. ^ Revelation 19:11–19
Citations[edit]
1. ^ Gjerset 1994, pp. 75, 76; Loadenthal 2013, p. 3.
2. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 216.
3. ^ Mhango 2008, pp. 223, 225–226.
4. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 11; Edmonds 2012, p. 92; Sibanda 2016, p. 182.
5. ^
Jump up to:a b c Barrett 1997, p. viii.
6. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 240; Cashmore 1983, p. 6.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012, p. 92.
8. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 183.
9. ^ Hansing 2001, p. 733; Hansing 2006, p. 62.
10. ^
Soumahoro 2007, p. 43.
11. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 192.
12. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 71–72.
13. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 188; Bedasse 2010, p. 267; Edmonds 2012, p. 92; Glazier 2012, p. 614; Chawane 2014, p. 214.
14. ^ Loadenthal
2013, p. 6.
15. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 214.
16. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 502; Loadenthal 2013, p. 4; Chawane 2014, p. 218; Williams 2017, p. 477.
17. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 240; Watson 1973, p. 189; Ifekwe 2008, p. 106; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert
2011, p. 187.
18. ^ Watson 1974, p. 329; Salter 2005, p. 8.
19. ^ Watson 1973, p. 189; Campbell 1988, p. 78; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 501; King 2002, p. 136.
20. ^ Chevannes 1990, p. 143.
21. ^ Lake 1994, p. 253.
22. ^ Banton 1989, p.
153; Cashmore 1989, pp. 158–160.
23. ^ King 2002, p. 13.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b Barnett 2005, p. 75.
25. ^ Simpson 1985, p. 291.
26. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 881; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 194.
27. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 49; Bedasse
2010, p. 961.
28. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 158.
29. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 82; Ifekwe 2008, p. 111; Edmonds 2012, p. 32; Chawane 2014, p. 217.
30. ^ Jump up to:a b Barrett 1997, p. 82.
31. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 218.
32. ^ Forsythe 1980, p. 64; Simpson
1985, p. 291; Barrett 1997, pp. 2, 103; King 1998, p. 51; Middleton 2006, p. 152; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 183; Glazier 2012, p. 614; Chawane 2014, p. 218.
33. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 187.
34. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 8.
35. ^ Cashmore
1983, p. 8; Chawane 2014, p. 218.
36. ^ Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012, p. 32.
37. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. v.
38. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 63.
39. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 49–50, 63.
40. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Clarke 1986, p. 64.
41. ^ Warner-Lewis
1993, p. 108; Savishinsky 1994b, p. 31; Barrett 1997, p. 111; Sibanda 2016, p. 183.
42. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 231.
43. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 882.
44. ^ Bedasse 2013, p. 302.
45. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 14; Cashmore 1983, p. 74; Barrett 1997, p. 127; Sibanda
2016, p. 184; Chawane 2014, p. 232.
46. ^ Jump up to:a b Sibanda 2016, p. 184.
47. ^ Glazier 2012, p. 614.
48. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 127; Mhango 2008, p. 222.
49. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 73.
50. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 64; Barrett 1997, p. 127.
51. ^
Cashmore 1983, p. 74; Clarke 1986, p. 64; Barrett 1997, p. 127; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 502; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 195.
52. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 74.
53. ^ Jump up to:a b Soumahoro 2007, p. 44.
54. ^ Jump up to:a b
Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 193.
55. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 24; Rubenstein & Suarez 1994, p. 2; Barrett 1997, p. 83.
56. ^ Chevannes 1990, p. 135.
57. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 6; Clarke 1986, p. 12; Barnett 2006, p. 876; Fernández Olmos
& Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 196.
58. ^ Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012, p. 36.
59. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 65.
60. ^ Jump up to:a b c Clarke 1986, p. 67.
61. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 67; Barrett 1997, p. 106.
62. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 67; Warner-Lewis 1993,
p. 110.
63. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 232.
64. ^ Jump up to:a b Soumahoro 2007, p. 39.
65. ^ Jump up to:a b c Barrett 1997, p. 108.
66. ^ Pereira 1998, p. 35; Benard 2007, p. 93.
67. ^ Watson 1973, p. 191; Soumahoro 2007, p. 46.
68. ^ Cashmore
1981, p. 175.
69. ^ Bedasse 2010, p. 960; Edmonds 2012, p. 32.
70. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 77; Benard 2007, p. 94.
71. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 34.
72. ^ Jump up to:a b Bedasse 2010, p. 961.
73. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 67; Bedasse 2010, pp.
961, 964.
74. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 15–16, 66; Barnett 2006, p. 876; Bedasse 2010, p. 966; Edmonds 2012, pp. 32–33.
75. ^ Watson 1973, p. 191; Clarke 1986, p. 65; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, pp. 510, 511; Mhango 2008, p. 222; Bedasse 2010, p. 264.
76. ^
Kitzinger 1966, p. 36; Kitzinger 1969, p. 246.
77. ^ Soumahoro 2007, p. 44; Bedasse 2010, p. 960.
78. ^ Bedasse 2010, p. 964.
79. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 159; Edmonds 2012, p. 34.
80. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 59.
81. ^ Salter 2005, p. 16.
82. ^
Bedasse 2010, p. 968.
83. ^ Jump up to:a b Cashmore 1983, p. 22.
84. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 66.
85. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 1.
86. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 36.
87. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 59; Edmonds 2012, pp. 36–37.
88. ^ Cashmore 1983,
p. 63.
89. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 60; Edmonds 2012, p. 37; Middleton 2006, p. 158.
90. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 37.
91. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 60; Barrett 1997, p. 253; Edmonds 2012, p. 37.
92. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 60.
93. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus
1998, p. 511; Edmonds 2012, p. 25.
94. ^ MacLeod 2014, p. 70.
95. ^ MacLeod 2014, p. 71.
96. ^ Jump up to:a b c Cashmore 1983, p. 127.
97. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 108; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 511.
98. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 17.
99. ^
Barnett 2006, p. 864.
100. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 882; Wittmann 2011, p. 152; Ntombana & Maganga 2020, p. 3.
101. ^ Campbell 1988, p. 78; Soumahoro 2007, p. 39; Bedasse 2013, p. 311.
102. ^ Simpson 1955, p. 168; Cashmore 1983, p. 129; Clarke 1986,
p. 17; Barrett 1997, p. 111; Edmonds 2012, p. 38.
103. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Clarke 1986, p. 81.
104. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 240.
105. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 81; Barnett 2006, p. 885.
106. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 13.
107. ^ Simpson 1955,
p. 169; Watson 1973, p. 191; Barrett 1997, p. 113; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 504.
108. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 149; Clarke 1986, p. 81.
109. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 150.
110. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 82.
111. ^ Eyre 1985, p. 145; Pereira
1998, p. 31; Edmonds 2012, p. 40.
112. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 38–40.
113. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 175–176; Edmonds 2012, p. 40.
114. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 38.
115. ^ Jump up to:a b c Barnett 2005, p. 77.
116. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 69.
117. ^
Cashmore 1983, p. 71.
118. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Edmonds 2012, p. 40.
119. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 19.
120. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 69; Barrett 1997, p. 111.
121. ^ White 2010, p. 317.
122. ^ Jump up to:a b White 2010, p. 314.
123. ^ Clarke 1986, p.
77.
124. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 77; Edmonds 2012, p. 41.
125. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 240; Middleton 2006, p. 163.
126. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 163.
127. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Edmonds 2012, p. 41.
128. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Edmonds 2012, p. 42.
129. ^
Clarke 1986, p. 99.
130. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 100; Edmonds 2012, p. 42; Bedasse 2013, p. 294.
131. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 33; Barrett 1997, p. 172; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 511; Edmonds 2012, p. 42.
132. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 85.
133. ^
Cashmore 1983, pp. 7–8; Simpson 1985, p. 286; Eyre 1985, p. 147; Barrett 1997, pp. 248–249; Barnett 2006, p. 875; Semaj 2013, p. 103.
134. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 11; Barnett 2006, p. 875.
135. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 70.
136. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 134.
137. ^
Cashmore 1983, p. 129.
138. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 11, 70.
139. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 11, 69.
140. ^ Jump up to:a b Barrett 1997, p. 119.
141. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 74.
142. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 75; Barrett 1997, p. 112.
143. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 112.
144. ^
Barrett 1997, p. 113.
145. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 74; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 186.
146. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 76.
147. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 247; Clarke 1986, p. 75; Chevannes 1990, p. 141; Barnett 2005, p. 72.
148. ^ Clarke 1986,
p. 73.
149. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 79.
150. ^ Jump up to:a b c Barnett 2002, p. 54.
151. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 79; Barnett 2002, p. 57; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
152. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 83.
153. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 83; Barnett 2002, p. 57.
154. ^
Cashmore 1981, p. 177.
155. ^ Alison Dundes Renteln (2005). The Cultural Defense. Oxford University Press. p. 257. ISBN 9780195154030.
156. ^ Watson 1973, p. 192.
157. ^ Warner-Lewis 1993, p. 122.
158. ^ Barnett 2002, p. 57.
159. ^ Jump
up to:a b c d e Clarke 1986, p. 50.
160. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 247; Chevannes 1994, p. 150; Barrett 1997, p. 220.
161. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 220.
162. ^ Jump up to:a b Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 187.
163. ^ Cashmore 1981, pp.
175–176, 179; Barnett 2006, p. 891.
164. ^ Middleton 2006, pp. 165–167.
165. ^ Newland 2013, p. 205.
166. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 178; Edmonds 2012, p. 96.
167. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 13; Clarke 1986, p. 87; Chevannes 1990, p. 142; Barrett 1997, p. 241;
Barnett 2006, p. 879; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 199; Edmonds 2012, p. 95.
168. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 200; Edmonds 2012, p. 96.
169. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 178; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 504; Edmonds
2012, p. 95.
170. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 178.
171. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 16.
172. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 97.
173. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 15; Lake 1994, p. 244; Sabelli 2011, p. 141; Edmonds 2012, p. 98.
174. ^ Lake 1994, pp. 241–242; Edmonds 2012, pp. 95, 97.
175. ^
Clarke 1986, p. 88; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 200; Edmonds 2012, p. 98.
176. ^ Lake 1994, p. 247; Barnett 2006, p. 889; Edmonds 2012, p. 98.
177. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 200; Edmonds 2012, p. 98.
178. ^
Rowe 1980, p. 15.
179. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 889.
180. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 98, 99.
181. ^ Barnett 2002, p. 55; Edmonds 2012, p. 98.
182. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 95.
183. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 38.
184. ^ Lake 1994, p. 252; Edmonds
2012, p. 99.
185. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 99.
186. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 38; Kitzinger 1969, p. 253; Clarke 1986, p. 88; Semaj 2013, p. 106.
187. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 78–79.
188. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 253; Cashmore 1983, p. 79; Clarke 1986, p. 87;
Edmonds 2012, p. 109.
189. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 109.
190. ^ Lake 1994, p. 245; Edmonds 2012, p. 99.
191. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 87–88.
192. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 37.
193. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 504; Edmonds 2012, pp. 103–104.
194. ^
Jump up to:a b c d e Clarke 1986, p. 88.
195. ^ Cashmore 1981, pp. 178–179; Clarke 1986, p. 87.
196. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 87; Edmonds 2012, p. 107.
197. ^ Turner 1991, p. 86.
198. ^ Sabelli 2011, p. 141.
199. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 253; Cashmore
1983, p. 79; Clarke 1986, p. 88; Barrett 1997, p. 209; Edmonds 2012, p. 99.
200. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 37; Clarke 1986, p. 88; Edmonds 2012, p. 100; Sibanda 2016, p. 192.
201. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 35; Kitzinger 1969, pp. 254–255; Cashmore 1983,
p. 79; Barnett 2006, p. 879; Sibanda 2016, pp. 180, 181, 191.
202. ^ Jump up to:a b Sibanda 2016, p. 192.
203. ^ Cashmore 1981, pp. 178–179.
204. ^ Gjerset 1994, p. 71; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 503; Edmonds 2012, p. 32.
205. ^ Barnett
2002, p. 54; Edmonds 2012, p. 53.
206. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Edmonds 2012, p. 57.
207. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 262.
208. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Edmonds 2012, p. 55.
209. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 88; Edmonds 2012, p. 54.
210. ^ Edmonds
2012, p. 100.
211. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 505; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 193; Edmonds 2012, p. 56; Chawane 2014, p. 234.
212. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, pp. 505–506; Edmonds 2012, p. 56; Chawane 2014, p. 234.
213. ^
Edmonds 2012, pp. 56–57.
214. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 57.
215. ^ Jump up to:a b Barrett 1997, p. 125.
216. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 58–59.
217. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 59.
218. ^ Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012, p. 60.
219. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Edmonds
2012, p. 61.
220. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 60–61.
221. ^ Semaj 2013, p. 106.
222. ^ Semaj 2013, p. 107.
223. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 47; Chawane 2014, p. 224.
224. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 129; Chawane 2014, p. 225.
225. ^ Gjerset 1994, p. 73.
226. ^
Clarke 1986, p. 89.
227. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 48; Chawane 2014, p. 224.
228. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 51; Salter 2005, p. 8; Benard 2007, p. 90; Edmonds 2012, p. 53.
229. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 53.
230. ^ Barnett 2006, p. 883; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert
2011, p. 201.
231. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 89; Edmonds 2012, p. 48.
232. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 89; Gjerset 1994, p. 73; Edmonds 2012, pp. 48, 55.
233. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 48.
234. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 49, 55.
235. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 130;
Edmonds 2012, p. 56.
236. ^ Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012, p. 56.
237. ^ Hamid 2002, p. xxxii.
238. ^ Benard 2007, pp. 95, 96; Edmonds 2012, p. 55.
239. ^ Benard 2007, pp. 91–92.
240. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 190.
241. ^
Barrett 1997, p. 129.
242. ^ Jump up to:a b Loadenthal 2013, p. 5.
243. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 76; Barnett 2006, p. 892; Sibanda 2016, p. 184.
244. ^ Margolin, Madison (August 20, 2018). “Now Decriminalized, Could Jamaica Become Destination for
Legal Weed?”. Rolling Stone. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
245. ^ “Government passes ganja legislation for Rastafarians, conditions apply”. Loop. November 24, 2019. Retrieved February 19, 2020.
246. ^ “Barbados gov’t promises Rastafarians 60 acres
to grow marijuana”. Jamaica Observer. August 31, 2019. Retrieved October 9, 2020.
247. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 93.
248. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Edmonds 2012, p. 58.
249. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Clarke 1986, p. 94.
250. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 94; Barrett
1997, p. 123; Edmonds 2012, p. 58.
251. ^ King 2002, p. 5.
252. ^ King 2002, p. 4.
253. ^ King 2002, p. 24; Edmonds 2012, p. 115.
254. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 93; Barrett 1997, p. 162.
255. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 113.
256. ^ Jump
up to:a b King 2002, p. 24.
257. ^ Jump up to:a b King 2002, p. 46.
258. ^ Barrett 1997, p. vii.
259. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 117.
260. ^ King 2002, p. 57.
261. ^ King 2002, p. 56.
262. ^ Jump up to:a b King 2002, p. 96.
263. ^ King 2002,
p. 100.
264. ^ Jump up to:a b King 2002, p. 102.
265. ^ King 2002, p. xiii; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 191.
266. ^ Jump up to:a b c Barrett 1997, p. 245.
267. ^ Rommen 2006, pp. 235–236.
268. ^ Partridge 2004, p. 178.
269. ^
Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
270. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 92–93.
271. ^ Pollard 1980, p. 32; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 191.
272. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 191.
273. ^ Pollard 1980, p. 32.
274. ^
Edmonds 2012, p. 45.
275. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 92.
276. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 46, 47.
277. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 93; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 509.
278. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 103.
279. ^ Pollard 1982, p. 25.
280. ^ Simpson 1985,
p. 288; Clarke 1986, p. 92; Chevannes 1994, p. 167; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 509; Edmonds 2012, p. 45.
281. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 2, 38.
282. ^ Jump up to:a b Clarke 1986, p. 92; Edmonds 2012, p. 37.
283. ^ Pollard 1980, p. 36; King 2002,
p. xx; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
284. ^ Simpson 1985, p. 288; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 509; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
285. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 269; Semaj 2013, p. 108.
286. ^ Jump up to:a b c d White 2010, p. 308.
287. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 159; Barrett
1997, p. 143; White 2010, p. 307.
288. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 160; Barrett 1997, p. 143; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 190.
289. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 143.
290. ^ Jump up to:a b White 2010, p. 307.
291. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 160.
292. ^
Clarke 1986, p. 83; Barrett 1997, p. 141; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 198; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
293. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 83; Loadenthal 2013, p. 4; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 198; Edmonds 2012, p. 47.
294. ^ Fernández
Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 198; Edmonds 2012, p. 49.
295. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 83; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 507; Edmonds 2012, p. 49; Sibanda 2016, p. 184.
296. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 198.
297. ^ Barnett 2005,
p. 72.
298. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 141; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 198; Edmonds 2012, p. 49; Sibanda 2016, p. 184.
299. ^ White 2010, p. 309.
300. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 267.
301. ^ Kitzinger 1966, p. 35; Clarke 1986, p. 85; Barrett
1997, p. 142; Edmonds 2012, p. 48.
302. ^ Rowe 1980, p. 15; Chevannes 1994, pp. 157–158; Barrett 1997, p. 142; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 504.
303. ^ Chevannes 1994, pp. 165–166.
304. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 247; Clarke 1986, p. 85; Barrett 1997,
p. 131; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 198.
305. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 131; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 198; Edmonds 2012, p. 48.
306. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 199.
307. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert
2011, pp. 198–199.
308. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 242; Clarke 1986, p. 92.
309. ^ Barnett 2002, p. 55.
310. ^ Barrett 1997, p. ix; Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 509; Hansing 2001, p. 741; Barnett 2006, p. 887; Chawane 2014, p. 225.
311. ^ Clarke
1986, p. 89; Barrett 1997, p. 137; Edmonds 2012, p. 43; Bedasse 2013, p. 316.
312. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 90; Barrett 1997, p. 137; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 190.
313. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 89; Wittmann 2011, p. 154; Loadenthal 2013,
p. 4.
314. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 44.
315. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 157; Clarke 1986, p. 90; Wittmann 2011, pp. 154–155; Edmonds 2012, p. 42.
316. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 90; Edmonds 2012, pp. 44, 45.
317. ^ Jump up to:a b Barrett 1997, p.
140.
318. ^ Kitzinger 1969, p. 242.
319. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 62–63; Clarke 1986, p. 53.
320. ^ Forsythe 1980, p. 64; Pollard 1982, p. 29; Gjerset 1994, p. 72; Edmonds 2012, p. 45.
321. ^ Kebede & Knottnerus 1998, p. 509.
322. ^ Barrett
1997, pp. 257–258; Mhango 2008, p. 233.
323. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 13; Gjerset 1994, p. 72.
324. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 90.
325. ^ Chevannes 1994, pp. 157–158.
326. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 42–43.
327. ^ Jump up to:a b Barrett 1997, p. ix.
328. ^ White
2010, p. 310.
329. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 139.
330. ^ Phiri, Frank (January 24, 2020). “Malawi’s Rastas cheer ruling allowing dreadlocks in school”. Reuters. Retrieved October 3, 2020.
331. ^ Jump up to:a b Chevannes 1994, p. 2.
332. ^ Clarke
1986, p. 24; Chevannes 1994, p. 3.
333. ^ Chevannes 1994, p. 3.
334. ^ Francis 2013, p. 52.
335. ^ Chevannes 1994, p. 120.
336. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 25; Barrett 1997, p. 21.
337. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 26; Barrett 1997, p. 25.
338. ^ Jump up to:a
b c Clarke 1986, pp. 27–28.
339. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 29–34; Barrett 1997, pp. 75–76; Francis 2013, pp. 54–56.
340. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 34; Chawane 2014, p. 221.
341. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 34.
342. ^ Clarke 1986, pp. 41–42.
343. ^ Jump up to:a b
Clarke 1986, p. 43.
344. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 22; Soumahoro 2007, pp. 38–39.
345. ^ Grant 2008, p. 426.
346. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 35; Edmonds 2012, p. 7; Semaj 2013, p. 99; Chawane 2014, p. 221.
347. ^ Chevannes 1994, p. 109.
348. ^ Cashmore
1983, p. 22; Grant 2008, pp. 440–441.
349. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 46; Lewis 1993, pp. 1–2; Loadenthal 2013, p. 10.
350. ^ Lewis 1993, p. 2; Barrett 1997, p. 81; Edmonds 2012, p. 9.
351. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 46; Lewis 1993, p. 2.
352. ^ Clarke 1986,
p. 46.
353. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 46; Barrett 1997, pp. 85–86; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 188; Edmonds 2012, pp. 11, 13.
354. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 25; Clarke 1986, p. 46; Barrett 1997, p. 86; Edmonds 2012, pp. 13–14.
355. ^ Cashmore
1983, p. 26; Barrett 1997, p. 87; Edmonds 2012, pp. 14–15.
356. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 87; Edmonds 2012, p. 15.
357. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Clarke 1986, p. 47.
358. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 27; Clarke 1986, p. 47; Barrett 1997, p. 89; Bonacci 2013, pp.
74, 78.
359. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 10.
360. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 49; Barrett 1997, p. 93.
361. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 15.
362. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 16.
363. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 50; Barrett 1997, p. 92.
364. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 28; Clarke 1986, p. 50;
Barrett 1997, p. 93.
365. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 28.
366. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 28–29; Clarke 1986, p. 50; Barrett 1997, pp. 95–98; Edmonds 2012, p. 19.
367. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 29–30; Barrett 1997, pp. 98–99; Edmonds 2012, pp. 19–20.
368. ^
Edmonds 2012, p. 22.
369. ^ King 2002, p. 79.
370. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 51; Barrett 1997, pp. 158–160; King 2002, pp. 82–83; Edmonds 2012, p. 24.
371. ^ Jump up to:a b c Clarke 1986, p. 51.
372. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 146.
373. ^ King 2002, p.
52.
374. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 51; Edmonds 2012, p. 25.
375. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 25.
376. ^ King 2002, p. 103.
377. ^ King 2002, p. 81.
378. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 52; Bedasse 2013, pp. 297–298; Edmonds 2012, p. 26.
379. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 54; Edmonds
2012, pp. 25–26.
380. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 55.
381. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 108.
382. ^ King 2002, pp. 100, 102.
383. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 53.
384. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 52; Lewis 1993, p. 12; Lewis 1994, pp. 290–291; King 2002, pp. 105, 108–111.
385. ^
Barrett 1997, p. 220; King 1998, p. 41; King 2002, pp. 91–92; Edmonds 2012, p. 27.
386. ^ Lewis 1994, p. 12; Lewis 1994, p. 291; Edmonds 2012, p. 27.
387. ^ King 2002, p. 106.
388. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 27.
389. ^ King 2002, pp. 121–122.
390. ^
Semaj 2013, p. 98.
391. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 28.
392. ^ King 2002, p. 120.
393. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 29.
394. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 29–30.
395. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 30.
396. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 30–31.
397. ^ Barnett
2002, p. 56.
398. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 52.
399. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 91; King 2002, p. xvii.
400. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 52–53.
401. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Edmonds 2012, p. 69.
402. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 88–89.
403. ^ Jump up to:a
b c d e Edmonds 2012, p. 62.
404. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 188.
405. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 25.
406. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 59, 62.
407. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 63; Merritt 2017, p. 285.
408. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 64; Merritt 2017,
pp. 285–286.
409. ^ Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
410. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 182; Barnett 2005, p. 69; Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
411. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 69.
412. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 69; Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
413. ^ Middleton 2006, p. 157.
414. ^
Lake 1994, p. 247; Barnett 2005, p. 69; Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
415. ^ Lewis 1993, p. 11; Barrett 1997, p. 227; Bedasse 2010, pp. 961, 962; Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
416. ^ Rubenstein & Suarez 1994, p. 2; Bedasse 2010, p. 962; Edmonds 2012, p. 64.
417. ^
Edmonds 2012, p. 67.
418. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 229; Barnett 2005, p. 68; Edmonds 2012, p. 65.
419. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 66–67.
420. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 68; Barnett 2005, p. 67; Bedasse 2013, p. 302.
421. ^ Barnett 2005, p. 68.
422. ^ Cashmore
1983, p. 54; Barrett 1997, p. 230.
423. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 68.
424. ^ Bedasse 2010, pp. 961–962.
425. ^ Lewis 1993, p. 11; Rubenstein & Suarez 1994, p. 4.
426. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 68–69.
427. ^ Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012,
p. 71.
428. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 14; Edmonds 2012, p. 71.
429. ^ Jump up to:a b Edmonds 2012, p. 94.
430. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 94–95.
431. ^ Jump up to:a b c Edmonds 2012, p. 89.
432. ^ Jump up to:a b Hansing 2006, p. 63.
433. ^ Cashmore 1984,
p. 3.
434. ^ Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 191; Edmonds 2012, p. 85.
435. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 85.
436. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 55.
437. ^ Savishinsky 1994b, p. 28.
438. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 6.
439. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 128.
440. ^
Cashmore 1983, p. 9.
441. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 57.
442. ^ Cashmore 1983, pp. 57–58.
443. ^ Jump up to:a b c Clarke 1986, p. 59.
444. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 97.
445. ^ Loadenthal 2013, p. 2.
446. ^ Jump up to:a b Hansing 2001, p. 733.
447. ^
Jump up to:a b Hansing 2006, p. 64.
448. ^ Jump up to:a b c Clarke 1986, p. 16.
449. ^ “Jamaica”. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (US State Department). September 14, 2007. Retrieved October 20, 2010.
450. ^ Barrett 1997, p. 2.
451. ^
Barrett 1997, pp. 2–3.
452. ^ Barrett 1997, pp. 2, 241.
453. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 87.
454. ^ Gjerset 1994, p. 67.
455. ^ Gjerset 1994, p. 67; Edmonds 2012, p. 81.
456. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 81.
457. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 82.
458. ^ Campbell
1980, pp. 50–51; Simpson 1985, p. 291; Edmonds 2012, p. 82.
459. ^ Hansing 2001, p. 734; Hansing 2006, p. 65; Edmonds 2012, pp. 82–83.
460. ^ Edmonds 2012, pp. 82–83.
461. ^ Hansing 2001, p. 736; Hansing 2006, p. 69.
462. ^ Jump up to:a b
c Edmonds 2012, p. 72.
463. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 76.
464. ^ Loadenthal 2013, p. 12.
465. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 78.
466. ^ Savishinsky 1994b, pp. 26–27.
467. ^ Savishinsky 1994b, p. 33.
468. ^ White 2010, pp. 304, 306–307.
469. ^ Middleton
2006, p. 152.
470. ^ Middleton 2006, pp. 154–155.
471. ^ Middleton 2006, pp. 161–162.
472. ^ Savishinsky 1994b, pp. 31–32.
473. ^ Savishinsky 1994, p. 211.
474. ^ Savishinsky 1994, p. 214.
475. ^ Wittmann 2011, pp. 158–159.
476. ^ Jump
up to:a b c d Edmonds 2012, p. 79.
477. ^ Turner 1991, p. 82.
478. ^ Sibanda 2016, p. 182.
479. ^ Ntombana & Maganga 2020, p. 1.
480. ^ Chawane 2014, p. 220.
481. ^ Mhango 2008, p. 234.
482. ^ Newland 2013, p. 225.
483. ^ Cashmore 1983,
p. 54; Edmonds 2012, p. 72.
484. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 176; Cashmore 1983, p. 54.
485. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 58.
486. ^ Cashmore 1983, p. 56.
487. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 176; Edmonds 2012, p. 74.
488. ^ “Rastafari at a glance”. BBC. October 2,
2009. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
489. ^ Wakengut 2013, p. 60.
490. ^ Edmonds 2012, p. 83.
491. ^ Clarke 1986, p. 98.
492. ^ Jump up to:a b Cashmore 1981, p. 173.
493. ^ Cashmore 1981, p. 173; Hansing 2001, p. 733; Benard 2007, p. 90.
494. ^
King 2002, p. 101.
495. ^ Ben-Simhon, Coby (April 8, 2005). “Jamaica in the Desert”. Haaretz. Retrieved April 12, 2019.
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