reading

 

  • However, reading is not a natural process, and many children need to learn to read through a process that involves “systematic guidance and feedback”.

  • [15][16][17][18] Since the 1990s, some organizations have defined literacy in a wide variety of ways that may go beyond the traditional ability to read and write.

  • [103] However, some critics of CCSS say that “To achieve reading standards usually calls for long hours of drill and worksheets – and reduces other vital areas of learning
    such as math, science, social studies, art, music and creative play”.

  • Researcher and educator Timothy Shanahan, suggests, “Start teaching reading from the time you have kids available to teach, and pay attention to how they respond to this instruction
    – both in terms of how well they are learning what you are teaching, and how happy and invested they seem to be.

  • In the United States and elsewhere, it is widely believed that students who lack proficiency in reading by the end of grade three may face obstacles for the rest of their
    academic career.

  • [122] The following chart shows the percentage of K-12 English Language Arts teachers that engaged in foundational reading activities with students (i.e., engaging every student
    in a class in activities related to the foundational reading skills for more than a few minutes within the past five class lessons).

  • The Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSS) in the United States has standards for foundational reading skills in kindergarten and grade one that include instruction
    in print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, word recognition, and fluency.

  • [111][112] And, with respect to developmentally appropriate practice (DPA), in 2019 the National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, D.C., released
    a draft position paper on DPA saying “The notion that young children are not ready for academic subject matter is a misunderstanding of developmentally appropriate practice; particularly in grades 1 through 3, almost all subject matter can
    be taught in ways that are meaningful and engaging for each child”.

  • However, in the late 1990s, United States’ researchers found that the traditional way of reading to children made little difference in their later ability to read because
    children spend relatively little time actually looking at the text.

  • This is a program to identify students from kindergarten through grade three that are behind in reading, and provide support to make sure they are on track for reading success
    by the end of grade three.

  • [110] On the subject of Finland’s academic results, as some researchers point out, prior to starting school Finnish children must participate in one year of compulsory free
    pre-primary education and most are reading before they start school.

  • [85] As a result, many governments put practices in place to ensure that students are reading at grade level by the end of grade three.

  • [123] Secondary ELA teachers in states with reading legislation were significantly more likely to report frequently engaging their students in these activities than secondary
    ELA teachers in states without such legislation, even though only one-quarter of states with these laws include requirements around secondary ELA instruction.

  • [121] As a result many secondary school teachers devote some class time to activities related to foundational reading skills.

  • Another example is the policy in England whereby any pupil who is struggling to decode words properly by year three must “urgently” receive help through a “rigorous and systematic
    phonics programme”.

  • [147] The degree to which expert reading will change throughout an adult’s life depends on what they read and how much they read.

  • [115] Reviews of the academic literature by the Education Endowment Foundation in the UK have found that starting literacy teaching in preschool has “been consistently found
    to have a positive effect on early learning outcomes”[116] and that “beginning early years education at a younger age appears to have a high positive impact on learning outcomes”.

  • Researchers have concluded that approximately 95% of students can be taught to read by the end of the first or second year of school, yet in many countries 20% or more do
    not meet that expectation.

  • Connecting evidence-based practice to educational practice would be beneficial， but is extremely difficult to achieve due to a lack of adequate training in the science of
    reading among many teachers.

  • Although they say that all foundational skills are important, include reading, numeracy, basic reasoning ability, socio-emotional skills, and others – they focus specifically
    on reading.

  • )[107] In a discussion on academic kindergartens, professor of child development David Elkind has argued that, since “there is no solid research demonstrating that early academic
    training is superior to (or worse than) the more traditional, hands-on model of early education”, educators should defer to developmental approaches that provide young children with ample time and opportunity to explore the natural world on
    their own terms.

  • The environment in which children live may also impact their ability to acquire reading skills.

  • As one of the four core language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing),[78][79] reading is vital to gaining a command of written language.

  • [34][35][36][37] Writing systems [edit] Main article: Writing system In order to understand a text, it is usually necessary to understand the spoken language associated with
    that text.

  • that corresponds in many respects with the United States Common Core State Standards Initiative:[103] Foundational reading skill instruction practices, kindergarten through
    grade 12 [edit] The percentage of US students who failed to perform at or above the Nations Report Card basic reading level were grade 4 (37% in 2022), grade 8 (30% in 2022), and grade 12 (30% in 2019).

  • Spoken language: the foundation of reading [edit] Spoken language is the foundation of learning to read (long before children see any letters) and children’s knowledge of
    the phonological structure of language is a good predictor of early reading ability.

  • This stage in learning to read will often last until early adulthood.

  • [95] Reading to children: necessary but not sufficient [edit] Reading to children is not the same as teaching children to read; however, it does help if the children’s attention
    is directed to the words on the page as they are being read to.

  • [112] Suggested reading instruction by grade level [edit] Some education researchers suggest the teaching of the various reading components by specific grade levels.

  • Learning to read Learning to read or reading skills acquisition is the acquisition and practice of the skills necessary to understand the meaning behind printed words.

  • Many organizations measure and report on reading achievement for children and adults (e.g., NAEP, PIRLS).

  • [105] Some scholars favor a developmentally appropriate practice (DPA) in which formal instruction on reading begins when children are about six or seven years old.

  • They say “We know more about the science of reading than about the science of teaching based on the science of reading”, and “there are many layers between basic science findings
    and teacher implementation that must be traversed”.

  • [51] According to the 2019 Nation’s Report card, 34% of grade four students in the United States failed to perform at or above the Basic reading level.

  • [105] Also, a German study of 50 kindergartens compared children who, at age 5, had spent a year either “academically focused”, or “play-arts focused” and found that in time
    the two groups became inseparable in reading skill.

  • [14] Reading vs. literacy [edit] Reading is an essential part of literacy, yet from a historical perspective literacy is about having the ability to both read and write.

  • [33] In addition, since the 1940s the term literacy is often used to mean having knowledge or skill in a particular field (e.g., computer literacy, ecological literacy, health
    literacy, media literacy, quantitative literacy (numeracy)[29] and visual literacy).

  • [59][60] In the US, several research studies show that, in the absence of additional support, there is nearly a 90 percent chance that a poor reader in Grade 1 will remain
    a poor reader.

  • [76] Learning poverty is defined as being unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10.

  • At the beginning of this stage, a child will often be devoting so much mental capacity to the process of decoding that they will have no understanding of the words being read.

  • The following are some examples: • “the ability to read and write … in all media (print or electronic), including digital literacy”[19] • “the ability to … understand
    … using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts”[20][21][22] • “the ability to read, write, speak and listen”[23] • “having the skills to be able to read, write and speak to understand and create meaning”[24] • “the
    ability to … communicate using visual, audible, and digital materials”[25][26] • “the ability to use printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential”.

  • When teaching comprehension, the educational psychologist, G. Michael Pressley, says a strong case can be made for instruction in decoding, vocabulary, word knowledge, active
    comprehension strategies, and self-monitoring.

  • [154][75] Many researchers are concerned that low reading levels are due to how reading is taught.

  • [129][130] Normally, children will move through these stages at different rates; however, typical ages for children in the United States are shown below.

  • [48] State of reading achievement [edit] See also: Reading achievement: national and international reports Reading has been the subject of considerable research and reporting
    for decades.

  • [145] At the end of this stage, many processes are starting to become automatic, allowing the reader to focus on meaning.

  • [57] In 2023, New York City set about to require schools to teach reading with an emphasis on phonics.

  • However, there is some evidence that “shared reading” with children does help to improve reading if the children’s attention is directed to the words on the page as they are
    being read to.

  • [131] The daily reading period shown here uses books provided by Big Brother Mouse, a not-for-profit that promotes reading in Lao schools and villages.

  • [45][46][47] Research suggests that reading books and writing are among the brain-stimulating activities that can slow down cognitive decline in seniors.

  • Fluent, comprehending reader: 9 to 15 years old [edit] The goal of this stage is to “go below the surface of the text”, and in the process the reader will build their knowledge
    of spelling substantially.

  • [133] Children typically speak their first few words before their first birthday.

  • [38] Once established, writing systems on the whole change more slowly than their spoken counterparts, and often preserve features and expressions which are no longer current
    in the spoken language.

  • [146] Expert reader: 16 years and older [edit] At the expert stage, it will usually only take a reader one-half second to read almost any word.

  • [53] According to a 2023 study in California, only 46.6% of grade three students achieved the English reading standards.

  • Children who are regularly exposed to chronic environmental noise pollution, such as highway traffic noise, have been known to show decreased ability to discriminate between
    phonemes (oral language sounds) as well as lower reading scores on standardized tests.

  • [54][55] Another report states that many teenagers who’ve spent time in California’s juvenile detention facilities get high school diplomas with grade-school reading skills.

  • [77] However, the process of learning to read is complex and builds on cognitive, linguistic, and social skills developed from a very early age.

  • Yet, in many countries reading levels are considered low.

  • Reading is the process of taking in the sense or meaning of letters, symbols, etc., especially by sight or touch.

  • [117] This supports current standard practice in the UK which includes developing children’s phonemic awareness in preschool and teaching reading from age four.

  • [83] In 2019, among American fourth-graders in public schools, only 58% of Asian, 45% of Caucasian, 23% of Hispanic, and 18% of Black students performed at or above the proficient
    level of the Nation’s Report Card.

  • This includes areas such as oral reading fluency, vocabulary, morphology, reading comprehension, text, spelling and pronunciation, thinking strategies, oral language proficiency,
    working memory training, and written language performance (e.g., cohesion, sentence combining/reducing).

  • Yet, in a shared reading program with four-year-old children, teachers found that directing children’s attention to the letters and words (e.g.

  • However, it takes longer for them to learn the phonological form of words and to begin developing a spoken vocabulary.

  • Children improve their comprehension when they use a variety of tools such as connecting prior knowledge, predicting outcomes, drawing inferences, and monitoring gaps in their
    understanding.

  • And to support that theory some point out that children in Finland start school at age seven (Finland ranked 5th in the 2016 PIRLS international grade four reading achievement.

 

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