rhodophyta

 

  • [16] This event (termed primary endosymbiosis) is at the origin of the red and green algae (including the land plants or Embryophytes which emerged within them)) and the glaucophytes,
    which together make up the oldest evolutionary lineages of photosynthetic eukaryotes, the Archaeplastida.

  • [18] Red algae are divided into the Cyanidiophyceae, a class of unicellular and thermoacidophilic extremophiles found in sulphuric hot springs and other acidic environments,[19]
    an adaptation partly made possible by horizontal gene transfers from prokaryotes,[20] with about 1% of their genome having this origin,[21] and two sister clades called SCRP (Stylonematophyceae, Compsopogonophyceae, Rhodellophyceae and Porphyridiophyceae)
    and BF (Bangiophyceae and Florideophyceae), which are found in both marine and freshwater environments.

  • While some orders of red algae simply have a plug core, others have an associated membrane at each side of the protein mass, called cap membranes.

  • According to this theory, over time these endosymbiont red algae have evolved to become chloroplasts.

  • While this was formerly attributed to the presence of pigments (such as phycoerythrin) that would permit red algae to inhabit greater depths than other macroalgae by chromatic
    adaption, recent evidence calls this into question (e.g.

  • Because apical growth is the norm in red algae, most cells have two primary pit connections, one to each adjacent cell.

  • They also produce a specific type of tannin called phlorotannins, but in a lower amount than brown algae do.

  • [clarification needed] Below are other published taxonomies of the red algae using molecular and traditional alpha taxonomic data; however, the taxonomy of the red algae is
    still in a state of flux (with classification above the level of order having received little scientific attention for most of the 20th century).

  • [10] In addition, some marine species have adopted a parasitic lifestyle and may be found on closely or more distantly related red algal hosts.

  • [57] The two following case studies may be helpful to understand some of the life histories algae may display: In a simple case, such as Rhodochorton investiens: In the carposporophyte:
    a spermatium merges with a trichogyne (a long hair on the female sexual organ), which then divides to form carposporangia – which produce carpospores.

  • The life history of red algae is typically an alternation of generations that may have three generations rather than two.

  • See also: Eukaryote § Phylogeny Species of red algae[edit] Over 7,000 species are currently described for the red algae,[4] but the taxonomy is in constant flux with new species
    described each year.

  • [7] Except for two coastal cave dwelling species in the asexual class Cyanidiophyceae, there are no terrestrial species, which may be due to an evolutionary bottleneck in
    which the last common ancestor lost about 25% of its core genes and much of its evolutionary plasticity.

  • [54] Reproduction The reproductive cycle of red algae may be triggered by factors such as day length.

  • [27] Both marine and freshwater taxa are represented by free-living macroalgal forms and smaller endo/epiphytic/zoic forms, meaning they live in or on other algae, plants,
    and animals.

  • [3] A rather different example is Porphyra gardneri: In its diploid phase, a carpospore can germinate to form a filamentous “conchocelis stage”, which can also self-replicate
    using monospores.

  • The presumed red algae lie embedded in fossil mats of cyanobacteria, called stromatolites, in 1.6 billion-year-old Indian phosphorite – making them the oldest plant-like fossils
    ever found by about 400 million years.

  • [17] In addition to multicellular brown algae, it is estimated that more than half of all known species of microbial eukaryotes harbor red-alga-derived plastids.

  • [2] Two kinds of fossils resembling red algae were found sometime between 2006 and 2011 in well-preserved sedimentary rocks in Chitrakoot, central India.

  • Other algae of different origins filled a similar role in the late Paleozoic, and in more recent reefs.

  • [24] Freshwater species account for 5% of red algal diversity, but they also have a worldwide distribution in various habitats;[7] they generally prefer clean, high-flow streams
    with clear waters and rocky bottoms, but with some exceptions.

  • [43] Cell structure[edit] Red algae do not have flagella and centrioles during their entire life cycle.

  • [3] The carposporophyte may be enclosed within the gametophyte, which may cover it with branches to form a cystocarp.

  • The largest difference results from their photosynthetic metabolic pathway: algae that use HCO3 as a carbon source have less negative δ13C values than those that only use
    CO2.

  • Function[edit] The pit connections have been suggested to function as structural reinforcement, or as avenues for cell-to-cell communication and transport in red algae, however
    little data supports this hypothesis.

  • [49] Floridean starch (similar to amylopectin in land plants), a long term storage product, is deposited freely (scattered) in the cytoplasm.

  • “[30] Many subsequent studies provided evidence that is in agreement for monophyly in the Archaeplastida (including red algae).

  • The latter group uses the more 13C-negative CO2 dissolved in sea water, whereas those with access to atmospheric carbon reflect the more positive signature of this reserve.

  • Tetrasporophytes may also produce a carpospore, which germinates to form another tetrasporophyte.

  • [8][9] The red algae form a distinct group characterized by having eukaryotic cells without flagella and centrioles, chloroplasts that lack external endoplasmic reticulum
    and contain unstacked (stroma) thylakoids, and use phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments, which give them their red color.

  • When this happens, the living cell produces a layer of wall material that seals off the plug.

  • [4] The majority of species (6,793) are found in the Florideophyceae (class), and mostly consist of multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds.

  • [57] Carpospores may also germinate directly into thalloid gametophytes, or the carposporophytes may produce a tetraspore without going through a (free-living) tetrasporophyte
    phase.

  • [45] Chloroplasts[edit] The presence of the water-soluble pigments called phycobilins (phycocyanobilin, phycoerythrobilin, phycourobilin and phycobiliviolin), which are localized
    into phycobilisomes, gives red algae their distinctive color.

  • Both of these are very similar; they produce monospores from monosporangia “just below a cross-wall in a filament”[3] and their spores are “liberated through the apex of sporangial
    cell.

  • [11][12] Unlike green algae, red algae store sugars outside the chloroplasts as floridean starch, a type of starch that consists of highly branched amylopectin without amylose,[13]
    as food reserves outside their plastids.

  • The BF are macroalgae, seaweed that usually do not grow to more than about 50 cm in length, but a few species can reach lengths of 2 m.[22] Most rhodophytes are marine with
    a worldwide distribution, and are often found at greater depths compared to other seaweeds.

  • Bangiomorpha pubescens, a multicellular fossil from arctic Canada, strongly resembles the modern red alga Bangia and occurs in rocks dating to 1.05 billion years ago.

  • [51] When the salinity of the medium increases the production of floridoside is increased in order to prevent water from leaving the algal cells.

 

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