• First anti-slavery causes Ledger of sale of 118 slaves, Charleston, South Carolina, c. 1754 In 1735, the Georgia Trustees enacted a law prohibiting slavery in the new colony,
  which had been established in 1733 to enable the “worthy poor,” as well as persecuted European Protestants, to have a new start.

• [75][80][81][82][83] The birth of abolitionism in the new United States Main article: Abolitionism in the United States In the first two decades after the American Revolution,
  state legislatures and individuals took actions to free slaves.

• During the 16th and 17th centuries, St. Augustine was the hub of the trade in enslaved people in Spanish Florida and the first permanent settlement in what would become the
  continental United States to include enslaved Africans.

• All Northern states had abolished slavery in some way by 1805; sometimes, abolition was a gradual process, a few hundred people were enslaved in the Northern states as late
  as the 1840 census.

• [34] Slaves on a South Carolina plantation (The Old Plantation, c. 1790) In 1662, shortly after the Elizabeth Key trial and similar challenges, the Virginia royal colony approved
  a law adopting the principle of partus sequitur ventrem (called partus, for short), stating that any children born in the colony would take the status of the mother.

• [39] First religious status laws The Virginia slave codes of 1705 further defined as slaves those people imported from nations that were not Christian.

• [37][38] From the early 18th century British colonial merchants, especially in Charleston, South Carolina, challenged the monopoly of the Royal African Company, and Joseph
  Wragg and Benjamin Savage became the first independent traders of enslaved people to break through the monopoly by the 1730s.

• [19] Indentured servants Further information: Indentured servitude in British America In the early years of the Chesapeake Colonies (Virginia and Maryland), colonial officials
  found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the harsh frontier conditions, and there was a high mortality rate.

• [56][59] When the U.S. took over Louisiana, Americans from the Protestant South entered the territory and began to impose their norms.

• [69] Many slaves took advantage of the disruption of war to escape from their plantations to British lines or to fade into the general population.

• Northern states passed new constitutions that contained language about equal rights or specifically abolished slavery; some states, such as New York and New Jersey, where
  slavery was more widespread, passed laws by the end of the 18th century to abolish slavery incrementally.

• Four additional slave states then joined the Confederacy after Lincoln, on April 15, called forth in response “the militia of the several States of the Union, to the aggregate
  number of seventy-five thousand, in order to suppress” the rebellion.

• Slavery flourished in most of Britain’s North American and Caribbean colonies, with many wealthy slave owners living in England and wielding considerable power.

• This resulted in Louisiana, which was purchased by the United States in 1803, having a different pattern of slavery than the rest of the United States.

• The Georgia Trustees wanted to eliminate the risk of slave rebellions and make Georgia better able to defend against attacks from the Spanish to the south, who offered freedom
  to escaped enslaved people.

• Around 15,000 black loyalists left with the British, most of them ending up as free people in England or its colonies.

• [57][58][59] Together with a more permeable historic French system that allowed certain rights to gens de couleur libres (free people of color), who were often born to white
  fathers and their mixed-race concubines, a far higher percentage of African Americans in Louisiana were free as of the 1830 census (13.2% in Louisiana compared to 0.8% in Mississippi, whose population was dominated by white Anglo-Americans).

• [73] Slaves also escaped throughout New England and the mid-Atlantic, with many joining the British who had occupied New York.

• The trade in Indian slaves was the most important factor affecting the South in the period 1670 to 1715″; intertribal wars to capture slaves destabilized English colonies,
  Spanish Florida, and French Louisiana.

• [26] The historian Ira Berlin noted that what he called the “charter generation” in the colonies was sometimes made up of mixed-race men (Atlantic Creoles) who were indentured
  servants and whose ancestry was African and Iberian.

• They lost certain rights as they became classified by American whites as officially “black”.

• From 1526, during early colonial days, it was practiced in what became Britain’s colonies, including the Thirteen Colonies that formed the United States.

• Slaves and free blacks who supported the rebellion Main article: Black Patriot This postage stamp, which was created at the time of the Bicentennial, honors Salem Poor, who
  was an enslaved African-American man who purchased his freedom, became a soldier, and rose to fame as a war hero during the Battle of Bunker Hill.

• [citation needed] In 1807, the United States Congress acted on President Thomas Jefferson’s advice and, without controversy, made importing slaves from abroad a federal crime,
  effective the first day that the United States Constitution permitted this prohibition: January 1, 1808.

• First slave laws Further information: Slave codes There were no laws regarding slavery early in Virginia’s history, but, in 1640, a Virginia court sentenced John Punch, an
  African, to life in servitude after he attempted to flee his service.

• Most of Louisiana’s “third class” of free people of color, situated between the native-born French and mass of African slaves, lived in New Orleans.

• [12] The Charles Town slave trade, which included both trading and direct raids by colonists,[13] was the largest among the British colonies in North America.

• [14] Between 1670 and 1715, between 24,000 and 51,000 captive Native Americans were exported from South Carolina – more than the number of Africans imported to the colonies
  of the future United States during the same period.

• Slaves transported to the British colonies and United States:[51] • 1620–1700……21,000 • 1701–1760….189,000 • 1761–1770……63,000 • 1771–1790……56,000 • 1791–1800……79,000
  • 1801–1810….124,000 • 1810–1865……51,000 • Total ………….597,000 They constituted less than 5% of the 12 million enslaved people brought from Africa to the Americas.

• [94] During the Revolution and in the following years, all states north of Maryland took steps towards abolishing slavery.

• [28] This marked the first de facto legal sanctioning of slavery in the English colonies and was one of the first legal distinctions made between Europeans and Africans.

• [21] The first Africans to reach the colonies that England was struggling to establish were a group of some 20 enslaved people who arrived at Point Comfort, Virginia, near
  Jamestown, in August 1619, brought by British privateers who had seized them from a captured Portuguese slave ship.

• Although a small number of African slaves were kept and sold in England and Scotland,[65] slavery had not been authorized by statute in England, though it had been in Scotland.

• The United States became ever more polarized over the issue of slavery, split into slave and free states.

• [71] Historian Jill Lepore writes that “between eighty and a hundred thousand (nearly one in five black slaves) left their homes … betting on British victory”, but Cassandra
  Pybus states that between 20,000 and 30,000 is a more realistic number of slaves who defected to the British side during the war.

• [31] Massachusetts passed the Body of Liberties, which prohibited slavery in many instances but allowed people to be enslaved if they were captives of war, if they sold themselves
  into slavery or were purchased elsewhere, or if they were sentenced to slavery as punishment by the governing authority.

• No Southern state abolished slavery, but some individual owners, more than a handful, freed their slaves by personal decision, often providing for manumission in wills but
  sometimes filing deeds or court papers to free individuals.

• [70] Most died of disease before they could do any fighting, but three hundred of these freed slaves made it to freedom in Britain.

• The Atlantic slave trade was outlawed by individual states beginning during the American Revolution.

• As economic conditions in England began to improve in the first half of the 18th century, workers had no reason to leave, especially to face the risks in the colonies.

• [17] The ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the enslaved people revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local
  Native Americans.

• By 1804, all the Northern states had passed laws outlawing slavery, either immediately or over time.

• [45] But enslaved people were also used as agricultural workers in farm communities, especially in the South, but also including in areas of upstate New York and Long Island,
  Connecticut, and New Jersey.

• In the South, both sides offered freedom to slaves who would perform military service.

• [6][7] As the United States expanded, the Southern states attempted to extend slavery into the new western territories to allow proslavery forces to maintain their power in
  the country.

• [41][42][43] The Protestant Scottish highlanders who settled what is now Darien, Georgia, added a moral anti-slavery argument, which became increasingly rare in the South,
  in their 1739 “Petition of the Inhabitants of New Inverness”.

• Driven by labor demands from new cotton plantations in the Deep South, the Upper South sold more than a million slaves who were taken to the Deep South.

• Since persons of African origins were not English subjects by birth, they were among those peoples considered foreigners and generally outside English common law.

• The indentured laborers were not slaves, but were required to work for 4–7 years in states such as Virginia and Maryland in exchange for the cost of their passage and maintenance.

• Rhode Island started enlisting slaves in 1778, and promised compensation to owners whose slaves enlisted and survived to gain freedom.

• Upon their first sight of British vessels, thousands of slaves in Maryland and Virginia fled from their owners.

• From 1770 to 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American enslaved people was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and it was nearly twice as
  rapid as that of England.

• Slavery was defended in the South as a “positive good”, and the largest religious denominations split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South.

• Increasing slave trade Main article: Atlantic slave trade In 1672, King Charles II rechartered the Royal African Company (it had initially been set up in 1660) as an English
  monopoly for the African slave and commodities trade.

• Neighboring South Carolina had an economy based on the use of enslaved labor.

• [95][96][97][98] Constitution of the United States Main article: Slavery and the United States constitution Advertisement in The Pennsylvania Gazette, May 24, 1796, seeking
  the return of Oney Judge, a fugitive slave who had escaped from the household of George Washington.

• [33] First inherited status laws Main article: Partus sequitur ventrem During the colonial period, the status of enslaved people was affected by interpretations related to
  the status of foreigners in England.

• Although the creators of the Constitution never used the word “slavery”, the final document, through the three-fifths clause, gave slave owners disproportionate political
  power by augmenting the congressional representation and the Electoral College votes of slaveholding states.

• The change institutionalized the skewed power relationships between those who enslaved people and enslaved women, freed white men from the legal responsibility to acknowledge
  or financially support their mixed-race children, and somewhat confined the open scandal of mixed-race children and miscegenation to within the slave quarters.

• [69] In the closing months of the war, the British evacuated freedmen and also removed slaves owned by loyalists.

• [1] During and immediately following the Revolution, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states and a movement developed to abolish slavery.

• This was a reversal of common law practice in England, which ruled that children of English subjects took the status of the father.

• The legal institution of human chattel slavery, comprising the enslavement primarily of Africans and African Americans, was prevalent in the United States of America from
  its founding in 1776 until 1865, predominantly in the South.

• [15] First continental African enslaved people Main article: Slavery in the colonial history of the United States The first Africans enslaved within continental North America
  arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony (most likely located in the Winyah Bay area of present-day South Carolina), founded by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in 1526.

• Although it is possible that some of them were freed after a certain period, most of them remained enslaved for life.

• From 1790 to 1810, the proportion of blacks free in the United States increased from 8 to 13.5 percent, and in the Upper South from less than one to nearly ten percent as
  a result of these actions.

• In 1703, more than 42% of New York City households enslaved people, the second-highest proportion of any city in the colonies, behind only Charleston, South Carolina.

• The abolition of Indian slavery in 1542 with the New Laws increased the demand for African slaves.

• [27][29] Slaves processing tobacco in 17th-century Virginia In 1641, the Massachusetts Bay Colony became the first colony to authorize slavery through enacted law.

• [36] In the early 18th century, England passed Spain and Portugal to become the world’s leading trader of enslaved people.

 

Works Cited

[‘The United States continued to prohibit Royal Navy ships from investigating U.S.-flagged vessels – even in instances when the U.S. flag was being used fraudulently. The British still insisted on the right to impress (i.e. force to serve in the Royal
Navy) British citizens found on American ships – something that was a continued cause of grievance. Despite the intent of the treaty, the opportunity for additional co-operation was missed.
2. Wood, Peter (2003). “The Birth of Race-Based Slavery”.
Slate. (May 19, 2015): Reprinted from Strange New Land: Africans in Colonial America by Peter H. Wood with permission from Oxford University Press. ©1996, 2003.
3. ^ Douglass, Frederick (1849). “The Constitution and Slavery”.
4. ^ Jump up to:a
b Smith, Julia Floyd (1973). Slavery and Plantation Growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821–1860. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 44–46. ISBN 978-0813003238.
5. ^ McDonough, Gary W. (1993). The Florida Negro. A Federal Writers’ Project
Legacy. University Press of Mississippi. p. 7. ISBN 978-0878055883.
6. ^ Weil, Julie Zauzmer; Blanco, Adrian; Dominguez, Leo (January 10, 2022). “More than 1,700 congressmen once enslaved Black people. This is who they were, and how they shaped
the nation”. The Washington Post. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
7. ^ Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (1999). Africana : the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience. Internet Archive. New York : Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00071-5.
8. ^
Introduction – Social Aspects of the Civil War Archived July 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, National Park Service.
9. ^ “[I]n 1854, the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act … overturned the policy of containment [of slavery] and effectively unlocked
the gates of the Western territories (including both the old Louisiana Purchase lands and the Mexican Cession) to the legal expansion of slavery….” Guelzo, Allen C., Abraham Lincoln as a Man of Ideas, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press
(2009), p. 80.
10. ^ “A Proclamation by the President of the United States, April 15, 1861”. U.S. Capitol Visitor Center.
11. ^ “The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution”. National Constitution Center – The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
Retrieved March 1, 2022.
12. ^ López León, Dorian. “Puerto Rico in the 16th century – History”. Encyclopedia de Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico Endowment for the Humanities, and the National Endowment for the Humanities. Archived from the original on July
28, 2020. Retrieved June 29, 2020.
13. ^ Ethridge, From Chicaza to Chickasaw (2010), pp. 97–98.
14. ^ Ethridge, From Chicaza to Chickasaw (2010), p. 109.
15. ^ Ethridge, From Chicaza to Chickasaw (2010), p. 65.
16. ^ Jump up to:a b c Gallay,
Alan. (2002) The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South 1670–1717. Yale University Press: New York. ISBN 0300101937, p. 299
17. ^ Figures cited in Ethridge, From Chicaza to Chickasaw (2010), p. 237.
18. ^ Jump
up to:a b Robert Wright, Richard (1941). “Negro Companions of the Spanish Explorers”. Phylon. 2 (4).
19. ^ “St. Augustine, Florida founded”. African American Registry. Retrieved November 15, 2019.
20. ^ “Civil Rights in Colonial St. Augustine
(U.S. National Park Service)”. www.nps.gov. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
21. ^ Richard Hofstadter, “White Servitude” Archived October 9, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, n.d., Montgomery College. Retrieved January 11, 2012.
22. ^ 1.Deborah Gray White,
Mia Bay, and Waldo E. Martin, Jr., Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013), 59.
23. ^ Behrendt, Stephen (2005). “Transatlantic Slave Trade”. In Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (eds.).
Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Vol. 5 (Second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0195170559. Retrieved April 9, 2017.
24. ^ “African Americans at Jamestown”. National Park Service.
February 26, 2015. Retrieved June 4, 2019. Arrival of “20 and odd” Africans in late August 1619, not aboard a Dutch ship as reported by John Rolfe, but an English warship, White Lion, sailing with a letters of marque issued to the British Captain
Jope by the Protestant Dutch Prince Maurice, son of William of Orange. A letters of marque legally permitted the White Lion to sail as a privateer attacking any Spanish or Portuguese ships it encountered. The 20 and odd Africans were captives removed
from the Portuguese slave ship, San Juan Bautista, following an encounter the ship had with the White Lion and her consort, the Treasurer, another British ship, while attempting to deliver its African prisoners to Mexico. Rolfe’s reporting the White
Lion as a Dutch warship was a clever ruse to transfer blame away from the British for piracy of the slave ship to the Dutch.
25. ^ Rein, Lisa (September 3, 2006). “Mystery of Va.’s First Slaves Is Unlocked 400 Years Later”. The Washington Post.
Retrieved June 4, 2019.
26. ^ Knight, Kathryn (2010). “The First Africans”. Historic Jamestowne. Retrieved June 4, 2019. Nearing her destination, the slave ship was attacked by two English privateers, the White Lion and the Treasurer, in the Gulf
of Mexico and robbed of 50–60 Africans.
27. ^ Beth Austin (December 2019). “1619: Virginia’s First Africans”. Hampton History Museum. Retrieved June 29, 2021.
28. ^ Jump up to:a b Donoghue, John (2010). Out of the Land of Bondage”: The English
Revolution and the Atlantic Origins of Abolition. The American Historical Review. Archived from the original on September 4, 2015.
29. ^ Higginbotham, A. Leon (1975). In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period.
Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0195027457.
30. ^ Tom Costa (2011). “Runaway Slaves and Servants in Colonial Virginia”. Encyclopedia Virginia.
31. ^ “Assessing the Slave Trade: Estimates”. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database. Emory University, Atlanta,
Georgia.
32. ^ Jump up to:a b Higginbotham, A. Leon (1975). In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0195027457.
33. ^ William M. Wiecek (1977). “the Statutory Law of Slavery and
Race in the Thirteen Mainland Colonies of British America”. The William and Mary Quarterly. 34 (2): 258–280. doi:10.2307/1925316. JSTOR 1925316.
34. ^ William J. Wood. “The Illegal Beginning of American Negro Slavery,” American Bar Association Journal,
January 1970.
35. ^ Banks, Taunya (January 1, 2008). “Dangerous Woman: Elizabeth Key’s Freedom Suit – Subjecthood and Racialized Identity in Seventheenth Century Colonial Virginia”. Faculty Scholarship.
36. ^ “Africans in America | Part 1 | Narrative
| from Indentured Servitude to Racial Slavery”. PBS.
37. ^ Wood, Origins of American Slavery (1997), p. 88.
38. ^ Jump up to:a b c d “Interview: James Oliver Horton: Exhibit Reveals History of Slavery in New York City”, PBS Newshour, January 25,
2007. Retrieved February 11, 2012.
39. ^ “European traders”. International Slavery Museum. National Museums Liverpool. Retrieved November 15, 2019.
40. ^ Pamela Chase Hain, A Confederate Chronicle: The Life of a Civil War Survivor, p. 2, 2005
41. ^
Seybert, Tony (August 4, 2004). “Slavery and Native Americans in British North America and the United States: 1600 to 1865”. Slavery in America. Archived from the original on August 4, 2004. Retrieved June 14, 2011.
42. ^ Wilson, Thomas D., The
Oglethorpe Plan: Enlightenment Design in Savannah and Beyond, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012, chapter 3
43. ^ Scott, Thomas Allan (July 1995). Cornerstones of Georgia history. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0820317434.
44. ^
“Thurmond: Why Georgia’s founder fought slavery”. Archived from the original on July 15, 2012. Retrieved October 4, 2009.
45. ^ “It is shocking to human Nature, that any Race of Mankind and their Posterity should be sentanc’d to perpetual Slavery;
nor in Justice can we think otherwise of it, that they are thrown amongst us to be our Scourge one Day or other for our Sins: And as Freedom must be as dear to them as it is to us, what a Scene of Horror must it bring about! And the longer it is unexecuted,
the bloody Scene must be the greater.”
– Inhabitants of New Inverness, s:Petition against the Introduction of Slavery
46. ^ “Slavery in New York”, The Nation, November 7, 2005
47. ^ Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American
Slaves, 2003[ISBN missing][page needed]
48. ^ “The First Black Americans” Archived February 2, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, Hashaw, Tim; U.S. News & World Report, 1/21/07
49. ^ Jump up to:a b “Slavery in America”, Encyclopædia Britannica’s Guide
to Black History. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
50. ^ “South Carolina – African-Americans – Slave Population”. www.sciway.net. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
51. ^ Morison and Commager: Growth of the American Republic, pp. 212–220.
52. ^ Source:
Miller and Smith, eds. Dictionary of American Slavery (1988) p. 678
53. ^ Includes 10,000 to Louisiana before 1803.
54. ^ “The Demographic Cost of Sugar: Debates on Slave Societies and Natural Increase in the Americas | History Cooperative”. December
1, 2000. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
55. ^ Hacker, J. David (May 13, 2020). “From ’20. and odd’ to 10 million: the growth of the slave population in the United States”. Slavery & Abolition. Informa UK Limited. 41 (4): 840–855. doi:10.1080/0144039x.2020.1755502.
ISSN 0144-039X.
56. ^ This table gives the African American population in the United States over time, based on U.S. census figures. (Numbers from years 1920–2000 are based on U.S. census figures as given by the Time Almanac of 2005, p. 377.)
57. ^
Jump up to:a b c Steinberg, Martin H.; Forget, Bernard G.; Higgs, Douglas R.; Nagel, Ronald L. (2001). Disorders of Hemoglobin: Genetics, Pathophysiology, and Clinical Management. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63266-9.
58. ^ Jump up
to:a b Rodney Stark, For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-hunts, and the End of Slavery, p. 322 Internet Archive The hardcover edition has a typographical error stating “31.2 percent”; it is corrected to 13.2 in
the paperback edition. The 13.2% value for the percentage of free people of color (see below) is confirmed with 1830 census data.
59. ^ Jump up to:a b Cook, Samantha; Hull, Sarah (2011). The Rough Guide to the USA. ISBN 978-1405389525.
60. ^ Jump
up to:a b c Jones, Terry L. (2007). The Louisiana Journey. ISBN 978-1423623809.
61. ^ Stark, Rodney (2003). For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-hunts, and the End of Slavery. Princeton University Press. p. 322.
ISBN 978-0691114361.
62. ^ Gomez, Michael A: Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South, p. 29. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1998.
63. ^ Rucker, Walter C. (2006).
The River Flows On: Black Resistance, Culture, and Identity Formation in Early America. LSU Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0807131091.
64. ^ Brown, Christopher. PBS Video “Liberty! The American Revolution”, Episode 6, “Are We to be a Nation?”, Twin Cities
Public Television, Inc., 1997.
65. ^ Brown, Christopher Leslie (2006). Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism, pp. 105–106, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0807830345.
66. ^ Sandhu, Sukhdev (February 17, 2011).
“BBC – History – British History in depth: The First Black Britons”. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
67. ^ Xavier Scanlan, Padraic (2016). “Blood, Money and Endless Paper: Slavery and Capital in British Imperial History” (PDF). History Compass. 14 (5):
218–230. doi:10.1111/hic3.12310.
68. ^ Selig, Robert A. “The Revolution’s Black Soldiers”. AmericanRevolution.org. Retrieved October 18, 2007.
69. ^ Scribner, Robert L. (1983). Revolutionary Virginia, the Road to Independence. University of Virginia
Press. p. xxiv. ISBN 978-0813907482.
70. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e “George Washington’s Runaway Slave, Harry”. PBS. Retrieved March 29, 2023.
71. ^ Hartmann, Thom (2019). The Hidden History of Guns and the Second Amendment. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
p. 48.
72. ^ James L. Roark; et al. (2008). The American Promise, Volume I: To 1877: A History of the United States. Macmillan. p. 206. ISBN 978-0312585525.
73. ^ Clavin, Matthew J. (2019). The Battle of Negro Fort. The rise and fall of a fugitive
slave community. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-1479811106.
74. ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, p. 73.
75. ^ Finkelman, Paul (2012). Slavery in the United States. Duke University School
of Law. p. 116.
76. ^ Jump up to:a b Hubbard, Robert Ernest (2017). Major General Israel Putnam: Hero of the American Revolution, p. 98, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, NC. ISBN 978-1476664538.
77. ^ Nell, William C. (1855). “IV, Rhode Island”.
The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution. Robert F. Wallcut. ISBN 978-0557535286.
78. ^ Foner, Eric (2010). The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 205.
79. ^ Liberty! The American
Revolution (Documentary), Episode II:Blows Must Decide: 1774–1776. 1997 Twin Cities Public Television, Inc. ISBN 1415702179
80. ^ “The Revolution’s Black Soldiers”. www.americanrevolution.org. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
81. ^ Hoock, Holger.
Scars of Independence: America’s Violent Birth, pp. 95, 300–303, 305, 308–310, Crown Publishing Group, New York, 2017. ISBN 978-0804137287.
82. ^ O’Reilly, Bill and Dugard, Martin. Killing England: The Brutal Struggle for American Independence,
pp. 96, 308, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 2017. ISBN 978-1627790642.
83. ^ Ayres, Edward. “African Americans and the American Revolution”, Jamestown Settlement and American Revolution Museum at Yorktown website. Retrieved October 21, 2020.
84. ^
“Digital History”. www.digitalhistory.uh.edu. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
85. ^ Ketcham, Ralph. James Madison: A Biography, pp. 625–626, American Political Biography Press, Newtown, Connecticut, 1971. ISBN 0945707339.
86. ^ “Benjamin Franklin
Petitions Congress”. National Archives and Records Administration. August 15, 2016.
87. ^ Franklin, Benjamin (February 3, 1790). “Petition from the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery”. Archived from the original on May 21, 2006. Retrieved
May 21, 2006.
88. ^ Kaminski, John P., ed. (1995). A Necessary Evil?: Slavery and the Debate over the Constitution. Madison, WI: Madison House. p. 256. ISBN 978-0945-61216-2.
89. ^ Painter, Nell Irvin (2007). Creating Black Americans: African-American
History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present. p. 72.
90. ^ Wood, Gordon S. Friends Divided: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, pp. 19, 132, 348, 416, Penguin Press, New York, 2017. ISBN 978-0735224711.
91. ^ “An interview with historian Gordon
Wood on the New York Times’ 1619 Project”. World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
92. ^ “Interview with Gordon Wood on the American Revolution”. World Socialist Web Site. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
93. ^ Wood, Gordon S. The
Radicalism of the American Revolution, pp. 3–8, 186–187, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1992. ISBN 0679404937.
94. ^ Bailyn, Bernard. Faces of Revolution: Personalities and Themes in the Struggle for American Independence, pp. 221–224, Vintage Books,
New York, 1992. ISBN 0679736239.
95. ^ Finkelman, Paul (2007). “The Abolition of The Slave Trade”. New York Public Library. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
96. ^ Jump up to:a b c Hubbard, Robert Ernest. General Rufus Putnam: George Washington’s Chief
Military Engineer and the “Father of Ohio,” pp. 1–4, 105–106, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, 2020. ISBN 978-1476678627.
97. ^ Jump up to:a b c McCullough, David. The Pioneers: The Heroic Story of the Settlers Who Brought the
American Ideal West, pp. 11, 13, 29–30, Simon & Schuster, New York, 2019. ISBN 978-1501168680.
98. ^ Jump up to:a b McCullough, David. John Adams, pp. 132–133, Simon & Schuster, New York, 2001. ISBN 0684813637.
99. ^ Bennett, William J. America:
The Last Best Hope, Vol. I, p. 110, Tomas Nelson, Inc., Nashville, Tennessee, 2006. ISBN 978-1595551115.
100. ^ Keith L. Dougherty, and Jac C. Heckelman. “Voting on slavery at the Constitutional Convention.” Public Choice 136.3–4 (2008): 293.
101. ^
Mason, Matthew (2006). “Slavery and the Founding”. History Compass. 4 (5): 943–955. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00345.x.
102. ^ Joseph R. Conlin, The American Past: A Survey of American History (Cengage Learning, 2008)
103. ^ Baker, H. Robert
(2012). “The Fugitive Slave Clause and the Antebellum Constitution”. Law and History Review. 30 (4): 1133–1174. doi:10.1017/s0738248012000697. S2CID 145241006.
104. ^ “Fugitive Slave Laws”. Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 19, 2022.
105. ^
Section 2 of Article I provides in part: “Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states …by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians
not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.”
106. ^ Hall, Robert L. (1995). “African Religious Retentions in Florida”. In Colburn, David R.; Landers, Jane L. (eds.). The African American Heritage of Florida. University Press of Florida. pp. 42–70.
ISBN 978-0813013329.
107. ^ Wasserman, Adam (2010). A People’s History of Florida 1513–1876. How Africans, Seminoles, Women, and Lower Class Whites Shaped the Sunshine State (Revised 4th ed.). Adam Wasserman. ISBN 978-1442167094.
108. ^ Jump
up to:a b Sweig, Donald (October 2014). “Alexandria to New Orleans: The Human Tragedy of the Interstate Slave Trade” (PDF). Alexandria Gazette-Packet. Retrieved February 13, 2018.
109. ^ Dew, Charles B. (2016). The Making of a Racist. University
of Virginia Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0813938875.
110. ^ Jump up to:a b Curry, Richard O.; Cowden, Joanna Dunlop (1972). Slavery in America: Theodore Weld’s American Slavery As It Is. Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock. OCLC 699102217.
111. ^ “(Untitled)”.
South Branch Intelligencer. Romney, West Virginia. December 10, 1836. p. 2 – via newspapers.com.
112. ^ Elliot, Debbie (February 4, 2006). “A Visit to the Real ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin'”. All Things Considered. NPR. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
113. ^
Swarns, Rachel (February 14, 2018). “272 Slaves Were Sold to Save Georgetown. What Does It Owe Their Descendants?”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 16, 2016. Retrieved February 15, 2018.
114. ^ Swarns, Rachel L. (March 12,
2017). “A Glimpse Into the Life of a Slave Sold to Save Georgetown”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017.
115. ^ Hassan, Adeel (April 12, 2019). “Georgetown Students Agree to Create Reparations Fund”. The New York Times.
Archived from the original on April 12, 2019.
116. ^ Schafer, Daniel L. (2013). Zephaniah Kingsley Jr. and the Atlantic World. Slave Trader, Plantation Owner, Emancipator. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0813044620.
117. ^ Rankin, John (1833).
Letters on American slavery, addressed to Mr. Thomas Rankin, merchant at Middlebrook, Augusta County, Va. Boston: Garrison and Knapp.
118. ^ Kenrick, John (1817). The Horrors of Slavery. Cambridge, Massachusetts. p. 44.
119. ^ Jump up to:a b c
d e Manganelli, Kimberly Snyder (2012). Transatlantic spectacles of race: the tragic mulatta and the tragic muse. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813549873.
120. ^ Jump up to:a b Johnson, Walter. “The Slave Trader, the White Slave, and the Politics
of Racial Determination in the 1850s”. The Journal of American History. 87 (1). Retrieved May 25, 2018.
121. ^ Jump up to:a b Allman, T.D. (2013). Finding Florida. The True History of the Sunshine State. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 978-0802120762.
122. ^
Schwartz, Marie Jenkins (2004). Birthing a Slave: Motherhood and Medicine in the Antebellum South. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 10–11.
123. ^ Phillips, Patrick (2016). Blood at the Root. A Racial Cleansing in America. W. W. Norton.
pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0393293012.
124. ^ Kingsley, Zephaniah Jr.; Stowell, Daniel W. (2000). “Introduction”. Balancing Evils Judiciously: The Proslavery Writings of Zephaniah Kingsley. University Press of Florida. p. 2. ISBN 978-0813017334.[permanent
dead link]
125. ^ Guillory, Monique (1999), Some Enchanted Evening on the Auction Block: The Cultural Legacy of the New Orleans Quadroon Balls, PhD dissertation, New York University
126. ^ Williams, Caroline Randall (June 26, 2020). “You Want
a Confederate Monument? My Body Is a Confederate Monument. The black people I come from were owned and raped by the white people I come from. Who dares to tell me to celebrate them?”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 26, 2020.
127. ^
Dunn, Marvin (2016). A History of Florida through Black Eyes. pp. 87–88. ISBN 978-1519372673.
128. ^ Natanson, Hannah (September 14, 2019). “They were once America’s cruelest, richest slave traders. Why does no one know their names?”. The Washington
Post.
129. ^ Bercaw, Nancy. “Clary and the Fancy Girl Trade, 1806”. National Museum of African-American History and Culture. Retrieved May 15, 2018.
130. ^ Eblen, Tom (February 1, 2012). “Without the Civil War, who knows when Lexington’s slave
trade might have ended?”. Lexington Herald-Leader. Retrieved May 15, 2018.
131. ^ Brandt, Nat (1990). The town that started the Civil War. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0815602439.
132. ^ Paludan, Phillip Shaw (Summer
2006). “Lincoln and Negro Slavery: I Haven’t Got Time for the Pain”. Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association. 27 (2): 1–23. hdl:2027/spo.2629860.0027.203.
133. ^ Genovese, Eugene D. (1974). Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made. Pantheon
Books. p. 416.
134. ^ Adler, Jeffrey S. (1995). “Black Violence in the New South. Patterns of Conflict in Late-Nineteenth-Century Tampa”. In Colburn, David R.; Landers, Jane L. (eds.). The African Ameritage Heritage of Florida. University Press
of Florida. pp. 207–239 [212–213]. ISBN 978-0813013329.
135. ^ Jefferson, Thomas. “Like a fire bell in the night”. Library of Congress. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
136. ^ de Tocqueville, Alexise (2007). “Chapter XVIII: Future Condition Of Three
Races In The United States”. Democracy in America (Volume 1). ISBN 978-1420929102.
137. ^ Lee, Robert E. “Robert E. Lee’s opinion regarding slavery”. Shotgun’s Home of the American Civil War. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
138. ^ Thomas, Emory
M. (1997). Robert E. Lee. W. W. Norton & Co. p. 173. ISBN 978-0393316315.
139. ^ Beard, Charles A.; Beard, Mary R. (1921). History of the United States. New York: The Macmillan Company. p. 316.
140. ^ Richards, Leonard L. (2007). The California
Gold Rush and the Coming of the Civil War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 125. ISBN 978-0307265203.
141. ^ Jump up to:a b c Hammond, James Henry (March 4, 1858). “The ‘Mudsill’ Theory”. PBS. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
142. ^ Jump up to:a b
Fitzhugh, George. “The Universal Law of Slavery”. PBS. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
143. ^ Jump up to:a b Schott, Thomas E. Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia: A Biography, 1996, p. 334.
144. ^ Davis, William C. (2002). “Men but Not Brothers”. Look
Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America. Simon & Schuster. pp. 130–162.
145. ^ Cartwright, Samuel A. (May 1851). “Report on the Diseases and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race”. New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal: 691–715.
Retrieved May 15, 2018.
146. ^ Cartwright, Samuel A. (1851). “Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race”. DeBow’s Review. XI. Retrieved November 16, 2011.
147. ^ “The Slave Trade Meeting”. Charleston Daily Courier (Charleston, South Carolina).
October 22, 1859. p. 1 – via newspapers.com.
148. ^ Rabun, James (October 1970). “Review of The Slave Power Conspiracy and the Paranoid Style, by David Brion Davis”. Florida Historical Quarterly. 49 (2): 174–175. JSTOR 30140388.
149. ^ Sanborn,
Franklin Benjamin (c. 1900). John Brown and His Friends. p. 2.
150. ^ Grimké, Archibald (February 1909). “Abraham Lincoln and the Fruitage of his Proclamation”. American Missionary. 63 (2): 51–53.
151. ^ Nye, Russel B. (Summer 1946). “The Slave
Power Conspiracy: 1830–1860”. Science & Society. 10 (3): 262–274. JSTOR 40399768.
152. ^ Williams, James (1838). Narrative of James Williams, an American slave: who was for several years a driver on a cotton plantation in Alabama. Authentic narrative
of James Williams, an American slave. Isaac Knapp coordinated the publication. Boston: Published by the American Anti-Slavery Society. p. iv.
153. ^ Arthur Zilversmit, The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North (1967).
154. ^
Junius P. Rodriguez, ed. (2015). Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World. Routledge. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-1317471806.
155. ^ David Nathaniel Gellman, Emancipating New York: The politics of slavery and freedom, 1777-1827
(LSU Press, 2006) pp. 1–11.
156. ^ J. D. B. DeBow, Superintendent of the United States Census (1854). “Slave Population of the United States” (PDF). Statistical View of the United States. United States Senate. p. 82.
157. ^ “Africans in America/Part
4/Narrative: Fugitive Slaves and Northern Racism”. www.pbs.org. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
158. ^ Stewart, Alvan (1845). A legal argument before the Supreme court of the state of New Jersey, at the May term, 1845, at Trenton, for the deliverance
of four thousand persons from bondage. New York: Finch & Weed.
159. ^ Miller, Randall M.; Smith, John David (1997). “Gradual abolition”. Dictionary of Afro-American Slavery. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 471. ISBN 978-0275957995.
160. ^ Jump
up to:a b Peter Kolchin (1993), American Slavery, pp. 77–78, 81.
161. ^ Sewall, Samuel. The Selling of Joseph, pp. 1–3, Bartholomew Green & John Allen, Boston, Massachusetts, 1700.
162. ^ McCullough, David. John Adams, pp. 132–133, Simon & Schuster,
New York, 2001. ISBN 0684813637.
163. ^ Gradert, Kenyon. Puritan Spirits in the Abolitionist Imagination, pp. 1–3, 14–15, 24, 29–30, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, and London, 2020. ISBN 978-0226694023.
164. ^ Commager, Henry Steele. Theodore
Parker, pp. 206, 208–209, 210, The Beacon Press, Boston, Massachusetts, 1947.
165. ^ Berlin, Generations of Captivity, p. 104.
166. ^ Hardesty, Jared Ross (2018). Unfreedom: Slavery and Dependence in Eighteenth-Century Boston. NYU Press. p. 143.
ISBN 978-1479801848. Retrieved May 17, 2019.
167. ^ “Jenny Slew: The first enslaved person to win her freedom via jury trial”. Kentake Page. January 29, 2016. Retrieved May 17, 2019.
168. ^ Mand, Frank. “Ceasar Watson’s tale highlight of 1749
Courthouse Thanksgiving ceremony”. Wicked Local Plymouth. Retrieved May 17, 2019.
169. ^ Adams, Catherine; Pleck, Elizabeth (2010). Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England. Oxford University Press. p. 238. ISBN 978-0199741786.
Retrieved May 17, 2019.
170. ^ nydivided.org http://nydivided.org/VirtualExhibit/T1/G1/G1ReadMore.php. Retrieved December 29, 2022. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
171. ^ Gilbert Hobbs Barnes, The antislavery impulse: 1830–1844 (1933)
172. ^
Loveland, Anne C. (1966). “Evangelicalism and “Immediate Emancipation” in American Antislavery Thought”. The Journal of Southern History. 32 (2): 172–188. doi:10.2307/2204556. JSTOR 2204556.
173. ^ Jump up to:a b “Background on Conflict in Liberia”.
Archived from the original on January 8, 2011. Paul Cuffe, a successful New England black shipping man, financed and captained a voyage for American blacks in 1815–1816 to British-ruled Sierra Leone. Cuffe believed that African Americans could more
easily “rise to be a people” in Africa than in the United States because of the latter’s slavery, racial discrimination, and limits on black rights. Although Cuffee died in 1817, his early efforts encouraged the ACS to promote further settlements.
The Quakers opposed slavery, but they believed that blacks would face better chances for freedom in Africa than in the United States. Slaveholders opposed abolition, but they wanted to get rid of freedmen, whom they saw as potential leaders of rebellions
and people who encouraged slaves to run away.
174. ^ “Map of Liberia, West Africa”. World Digital Library. 1830. Retrieved June 3, 2013.
175. ^ Sale, Maggie Montesinos (1997). The Slumbering Volcano: American Slave Ship Revolts and the Production
of Rebellious Masculinity. Duke University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0822319924.
176. ^ Reynolds, David S. Mightier Than the Sword: Uncle Tom’s Cabin and the Battle for America. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2011.
177. ^ Jump up to:a b “Regulation
of the Trade”. New York Public Library. Retrieved June 23, 2014.
178. ^ Finkelman, Paul (2004). “Suppressing American Slave Traders in the 1790s”. OAH Magazine of History. Vol. 18, no. 3. pp. 51–55. ISSN 0882-228X.
179. ^ Jump up to:a b Grindal,
Peter (2016). Opposing the Slavers. The Royal Navy’s Campaign against the Atlantic Slave Trade (Kindle ed.). London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. ISBN 978-0857739384.
180. ^ “Potomac Books – University of Nebraska Press – University of Nebraska Press”.
Archived from the original on October 15, 2007.
181. ^ Kolchin (1993), American Slavery, p. 78.
182. ^ Peter Kolchin (1993), American Slavery, p. 81.
183. ^ Kolchin (1993), American Slavery, p. 87.
184. ^ The People’s Chronology, 1994, by
James Trager.
185. ^ Kolchin p. 96. Through the domestic slave trade, about one million enslaved African Americans were forcibly removed from the Upper South to the Deep South, with some transported by ship in the coastwise trade. In 1834, Alabama,
Mississippi and Louisiana grew half the nation’s cotton; by 1859, along with Georgia, they grew 78%. By 1859, cotton growth in the Carolinas had fallen to just 10% of the national total. Berlin p. 166.
186. ^ Berlin, Generations of Captivity, pp.
168–169. Kolchin p. 96.
187. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Morgan, Marcyliena (July 4, 2002). Language, Discourse and Power in African American Culture. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00149-6.
188. ^ “Gun Reviews Archives”. TheGunZone. Retrieved
December 29, 2022.
189. ^ “American Civil War Census Data”. Civil-war.net. Retrieved May 27, 2014.
190. ^ Berlin, Generations of Captivity, pp. 161–162.
191. ^ Berlin, Generations of Captivity, pp. 168–169. Kolchin p. 96. Kolchin notes that
Fogel and Engerman maintained that 84% of slaves moved with their families but “most other scholars assign far greater weight … to slave sales.” Ransome (p. 582) notes that Fogel and Engerman based their conclusions on the study of some counties
in Maryland in the 1830s and attempted to extrapolate that analysis as reflective of the entire South over the entire period.
192. ^ Kulikoff, Allan (1992). The Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
pp. 226–269. ISBN 978-0813913889.
193. ^ Berlin, Generations of Captivity, pp. 166–169.
194. ^ Kolchin, p. 98.
195. ^ Berlin, Generations of Captivity, pp. 168–171.
196. ^ Berlin, Generations of Captivity, p. 174.
197. ^ Berlin, Generations
of Captivity, pp. 175–177.
198. ^ Berlin, Generations of Captivity, pp. 179–180.
199. ^ Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999.
200. ^ Johnson (1999), Soul
by Soul, p. 2.
201. ^ “Frontiersman or Southern Gentleman? Newspaper Coverage of Andrew Jackson during the 1828 Presidential Campaign | Readex”. www.readex.com. Retrieved December 29, 2022.
202. ^ Collins, Kathleen (January 9, 1985). “The Scourged
Back”. The New York Times. pp. 43–45.
203. ^ Moore, p. 114.
204. ^ Clinton, Catherine, Scholastic Encyclopedia of the Civil War, New York: Scholastic Inc., 1999, p. 8.
205. ^ Jump up to:a b Maurie D. McInnis (2011). Slaves Waiting for Sale:
Abolitionist Art and the American Slave Trade. University of Chicago Press. pp. 129–. ISBN 978-0226559339.
206. ^ Moore, p. 118.
207. ^ Lawrence M. Friedman (2005). A History of American Law: Third Edition. Simon and Schuster, p. 163. ISBN 0743282582
208. ^
A. Aguirre, Jr., “Slave executions in the United States,” The Social Science Journal, vol. 36, issue 1 (1999), pp. 1–31.
209. ^ Davis, p. 124.
210. ^ Christian, Charles M., and Bennet, Sari, Black Saga: The African American Experience: A Chronology,
Basic Civitas Books, 1998, p. 90.
211. ^ Burke, p. 155.
212. ^ Barclay, J. L. (2021). The Mark of Slavery: Disability, Race, and Gender in Antebellum America. University of Illinois Press.
213. ^ Andrew Fede (2012). People Without Rights (Routledge
Revivals): An Interpretation of the Fun Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/manu_praba_dissanayake/14880561916/’]