• Far in the future, when hydrogen fusion in the Sun’s core diminishes to the point where the Sun is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, its core will undergo a marked increase
  in density and temperature which will cause its outer layers to expand, eventually transforming the Sun into a red giant.

• [83][e] The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000–2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000–20,000,000 K.[84] Although no
  complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection.

• Subsequently, the Sun will shed its outer layers and become a dense type of cooling star (a white dwarf), and no longer produce energy by fusion, but it will still glow and
  give off heat from its previous fusion for trillions of years.

• The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about 500 km above the photosphere, and has a temperature of about 4,100 K.[77] This part of the
  Sun is cool enough to allow for the existence of simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can be detected via their absorption spectra.

• The large power output of the Sun is mainly due to the huge size and density of its core (compared to Earth and objects on Earth), with only a fairly small amount of power
  being generated per cubic metre.

• The proportion of helium within the core has increased from about 24% to about 60% due to fusion, and some of the helium and heavy elements have settled from the photosphere
  toward the center of the Sun because of gravity.

• [63] Currently, only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from another sequence of fusion reactions called the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase
  as the Sun becomes older and more luminous.

• [99] Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth’s atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to 1,000 W/m2) in clear conditions when the Sun
  is near the zenith.

• [64][65] The core is the only region of the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; 99% of the power is generated within 24% of the Sun’s
  radius, and by 30% of the radius, fusion has stopped nearly entirely.

• The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight.

• This outermost layer of the Sun is defined to begin at the distance where the flow of the solar wind becomes superalfvénic—that is, where the flow becomes faster than the
  speed of Alfvén waves,[87] at approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU).

• [90] In late 2012, Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the probe
  had passed through the heliopause and entered the interstellar medium,[91] and indeed did so on August 25, 2012, at approximately 122 astronomical units (18 Tm) from the Sun.

• [62] The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale
  and supergranulation at larger scales.

• [108][109][110] The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself.

• Heat is transferred outward from the Sun’s core by radiation rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below), so the fusion products are not lifted outward by heat; they
  remain in the core,[56] and gradually an inner core of helium has begun to form that cannot be fused because presently the Sun’s core is not hot or dense enough to fuse helium.

• In the future, helium will continue to accumulate in the core, and in about 5 billion years this gradual build-up will eventually cause the Sun to exit the main sequence and
  become a red giant.

• [53] The hydrogen and most of the helium in the Sun would have been produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis in the first 20 minutes of the universe, and the heavier elements
  were produced by previous generations of stars before the Sun was formed, and spread into the interstellar medium during the final stages of stellar life and by events such as supernovae.

• The rest of the Sun is heated by this energy as it is transferred outward through many successive layers, finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space through
  radiation (photons) or advection (massive particles).

• [50] A vestige of this rapid primordial rotation still survives at the Sun’s core, which has been found to be rotating at a rate of once per week; four times the mean surface
  rotation rate.

• [50] A vestige of this rapid primordial rotation still survives at the Sun’s core, which has been found to be rotating at a rate of once per week; four times the mean surface
  rotation rate.

• [40] For the purpose of measurement, the Sun’s radius is considered to be the distance from its center to the edge of the photosphere, the apparent visible surface of the
  Sun.

• [40] For the purpose of measurement, the Sun’s radius is considered to be the distance from its center to the edge of the photosphere, the apparent visible surface of the
  Sun.

• [77] It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total solar
  eclipses.

• This would have made the surface much more active, with greater X-ray and UV emission.

• This would have made the surface much more active, with greater X-ray and UV emission.

• Over the past 4.6 billion years, the amount of helium and its location within the Sun has gradually changed.

• In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation.

• With this sequence of emissions and absorptions, it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun’s surface.

• It formed approximately 4.6 billion[a] years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud.

• [82] The Sun’s transition region taken by Hinode’s Solar Optical Telescope Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of
  emission and absorption lines.

• [d][48] A survey of solar analogs suggest the early Sun was rotating up to ten times faster than it does today.

• [d][48] A survey of solar analogs suggest the early Sun was rotating up to ten times faster than it does today.

• This process will make the Sun large enough to render Earth uninhabitable approximately five billion years from the present.

• [83] Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km) transition region, the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures
  closer to 1,000,000 K.[84] The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma.

• [86] In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics, plasma particles only move along magnetic field lines

• [62] This temperature gradient is less than the value of the adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection, which explains why the transfer of energy through this
  zone is by radiation instead of thermal convection.

• [62] By contrast, the Sun’s surface temperature is about 5800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone
  above.

• [94] Sunlight and neutrinos Main articles: Sunlight and Solar irradiance The Sun seen through a light fog The Sun emits light across the visible spectrum, so its color is
  white, with a CIE color-space index near (0.3, 0.3), when viewed from space or when the Sun is high in the sky.

• [66][67] Illustration of a proton-proton reaction chain, from hydrogen forming deuterium, helium-3, and regular helium-4 The proton–proton chain occurs around times each second
  in the core, converting about protons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of free protons in the Sun), or about .

• [31][32] This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population
  II, heavy-element-poor, stars.

• [31][32] This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population
  II, heavy-element-poor, stars.

• Most of this matter gathered in the center, whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System.

• Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun’s energy outward towards its surface.

• The term sol with a lower-case s is used by planetary astronomers for the duration of a solar day on another planet such as Mars.

• It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy from its surface mainly as visible
  light and infrared radiation with 10% at ultraviolet energies.

• Because energy transport in the Sun is a process that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer, on
  the order of 30,000,000 years.

• [18] The principal adjectives for the Sun in English are sunny for sunlight and, in technical contexts, solar (/ˈsoʊlər/),[3] from Latin sol[19]—the latter found in terms
  such as solar day, solar eclipse and Solar System.

• Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth’s ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological
  adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the Earth.

• Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in
  a phenomenon known as limb darkening.

• These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and are thus not affected by the settling of heavy elements.

• Names: Sun, Sol,[1] Sól, Helios[2]; Adjectives: Solar[3]; Observation data: Mean distance from Earth: 1 AU, 149,600,000 km, 8 min 19 s, light speed[4]; Visual brightness:
  −26.74 (V)[5]; Absolute magnitude: 4.83[5]; Spectral classification: G2V[6]; Metallicity: Z = 0.0122[7]; Angular size: 0.527–0.545°[8]; Orbital characteristics: Mean distance from Milky Way core: 24,000 to 28,000 light-years[9]; Galactic period:
  225–250 million years; Velocity: 251 km/s; orbit: Galactic Center: 20 km/s to stellar neighborhood, 370 km/s to cosmic microwave background[10]; Obliquity: 7.25° (ecliptic)[5], 67.23° (galactic plane); Right ascension North pole: 286.13° (286°
  7′ 48″)[5]; Declination of North pole: +63.87° (63° 52′ 12″N)[5]; Sidereal rotation period: 25.05 days (equator), 34.4 days (poles)[5]; Equatorial rotation velocity: 1.997 km/s[11]; Physical characteristics: Equatorial radius: 6.957 x 108
  m[12], 109 × Earth radii[11]; Flattening: 0.00005[5]; Surface area: 6.09×1012 km2 12,000 × Earth[11]; Volume: 1.412×1018 km3, 1,300,000 × Earth; Mass: 1.9885×1030 kg[5], 332,950 Earths[5]; Average density: 1.408 g/cm3 0.255 × Earth[5][11];
  Age: 4.6 billion years[13][14]; Equatorial surface gravity: 274 m/s2[5] 27.9 g0[11]; Moment of inertia factor: ≈0.070[5]; Surface escape velocity: 617.7 km/s 55 × Earth[11]; Temperature: 15,700,000 K (center)[5], 5,772 K (photosphere)[12],
  5,000,000 K (corona); Luminosity: 3.828×1026 W[5], 3.75×1028 lm, 98 lm/W efficacy; Color (B-V): 0.656[15]’; Photosphere composition by mass: 73.46% hydrogen, 24.85% helium, 0.77% oxygen, 0.29% carbon, 0.16% iron, 0.12% neon, 0.09% nitrogen,
  0.07% silicon, 0.05% magnesium, 0.04% sulfur[16] Etymology The English word sun developed from Old English sunne.

• Theoretical models of the Sun’s interior indicate a maximum power density, or energy production, of approximately 276.5 watts per cubic metre at the center of the core,[70]
  which, according to Karl Kruszelnicki, is about the same power density inside a compost pile.

• [77] The reason is not well understood, but evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona.

• [96][97] When the Sun is very low in the sky, atmospheric scattering renders the Sun yellow, red, orange, or magenta, and in rare occasions even green or blue.

• [77] Photons produced in this layer escape the Sun through the transparent solar atmosphere above it and become solar radiation, sunlight.

• This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear
  between the two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another.

• The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, at or near Earth’s orbit).

• [107] Magnetic activity The Sun has a stellar magnetic field that varies across its surface.

• [71] The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the
  weight of the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and
  again reverting it to its present rate.

• [93] On April 28, 2021, NASA’s Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén
  surface, the boundary separating the corona from the solar wind, defined as where the coronal plasma’s Alfvén speed and the large-scale solar wind speed are equal.

• The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life[c] on Earth by photosynthesis,[38] and drives Earth’s climate and weather.

• The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life[c] on Earth by photosynthesis,[38] and drives Earth’s climate and weather.

• Roughly three-quarters of the Sun’s mass consists of hydrogen (~73%); the rest is mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen,
  carbon, neon, and iron.

• [74] The transition region is not easily visible from Earth’s surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the extreme ultraviolet portion of
  the spectrum.

• The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere,[88][89] forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape,[86] until it impacts the heliopause more
  than 50 AU from the Sun.

• [100] Sunlight at the top of Earth’s atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light.

• Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves.

• The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H− ions, which absorb visible light easily.

• [106] Electron neutrinos are released by fusion reactions in the core, but, unlike photons, they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately.

• [84][86] The corona is the extended atmosphere of the Sun, which has a volume much larger than the volume enclosed by the Sun’s photosphere.

• High-energy gamma ray photons initially released with fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately absorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone, usually after
  traveling only a few millimeters.

• [101] The atmosphere filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths.

• [59] Structure and fusion Core Main article: Solar core The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius.

 

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