X-ray

 

  • [29] During the time the fluoroscope was being developed, Serbian American physicist Mihajlo Pupin, using a calcium tungstate screen developed by Edison, found that using
    a fluorescent screen decreased the exposure time it took to create an X-ray for medical imaging from an hour to a few minutes.

  • Many experimenters, including Röntgen himself in his original experiments, came up with methods to view X-ray images “live” using some form of luminescent screen.

  • Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms, they are also useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography.

  • In May 1896, he developed the first mass-produced live imaging device, his “Vitascope”, later called the fluoroscope, which became the standard for medical X-ray examinations.

  • [32][33] The first medical X-ray made in the United States was obtained using a discharge tube of Puluj’s design.

  • X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal microscope.

  • The use of X-rays for medical purposes (which developed into the field of radiation therapy) was pioneered by Major John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England.

  • [70] These methods provide higher contrast compared to normal absorption-based X-ray imaging, making it possible to distinguish from each other details that have almost similar
    density.

  • [11][12] After Röntgen identified the X-ray, Tesla began making X-ray images of his own using high voltages and tubes of his own design,[13] as well as Crookes tubes.

  • [43][44][45] Hall-Edwards developed a cancer (then called X-ray dermatitis) sufficiently advanced by 1904 to cause him to write papers and give public addresses on the dangers
    of X-rays.

  • There are several technologies being used for X-ray phase-contrast imaging, all using different principles to convert phase variations in the X-rays emerging from an object
    into intensity variations.

  • Due to their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects (e.g.

  • [29] The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand
    of an associate.

  • X-rays can penetrate many solid substances such as construction materials and living tissue, so X-ray radiography is widely used in medical diagnostics (e.g., checking for
    broken bones) and material science (e.g., identification of some chemical elements and detecting weak points in construction materials).

  • An 18-to-23-centimeter (7 to 9 in) spark would indicate a higher vacuum suitable for imaging the abdomen of larger individuals.

  • This image was used to argue that radiation exposure during the X-ray procedure would be negligible.

  • Many of the early Crookes tubes (invented around 1875) undoubtedly radiated X-rays, because early researchers noticed effects that were attributable to them, as detailed below.

  • This was a result of Puluj’s inclusion of an oblique “target” of mica, used for holding samples of fluorescent material, within the tube.

  • [73] Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use
    rather than their wavelength or source.

  • This early X-ray movie was recorded at a rate of one still image every four seconds.

  • The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to a radiographic image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself.

  • [50] Medical science also used the motion picture to study human physiology.

  • Dally had a habit of testing X-ray tubes on his own hands, developing a cancer in them so tenacious that both arms were amputated in a futile attempt to save his life; in
    1904, he became the first known death attributed to X-ray exposure.

  • Phase-contrast X-ray image of a spider An X-ray laser device was proposed as part of the Reagan Administration’s Strategic Defense Initiative in the 1980s, but the only test
    of the device (a sort of laser “blaster” or death ray, powered by a thermonuclear explosion) gave inconclusive results.

  • In 1785, he presented a paper to the Royal Society of London describing the effects of passing electrical currents through a partially evacuated glass tube, producing a glow
    created by X-rays.

  • These often took the form of a small side tube that contained a small piece of mica, a mineral that traps relatively large quantities of air within its structure.

  • [73][74][75][76] This definition has several problems: other processes can also generate these high-energy photons, or sometimes the method of generation is not known.

  • This idea was quickly applied to X-ray tubes, and hence heated-cathode X-ray tubes, called “Coolidge tubes”, completely replaced the troublesome cold cathode tubes by about
    1920.

  • It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.

  • On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards was also the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.

  • The most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry (e.g.

  • This allows the photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to give sufficient transmission through the object and at the same time provide good contrast in the
    image.

  • One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic
    nucleus.

  • [18] There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because Röntgen had his lab notes burned after his death, but this is a likely reconstruction by his biographers:[19][20]
    Röntgen was investigating cathode rays from a Crookes tube which he had wrapped in black cardboard so that the visible light from the tube would not interfere, using a fluorescent screen painted with barium platinocyanide.

  • Modern X-ray tubes are based on this design, often employing the use of rotating targets which allow for significantly higher heat dissipation than static targets, further
    allowing higher quantity X-ray output for use in high-powered applications such as rotational CT scanners.

  • American inventor Thomas Edison started research soon after Röntgen’s discovery and investigated materials’ ability to fluoresce when exposed to X-rays, finding that calcium
    tungstate was the most effective substance.

  • Larger and more frequently used tubes were provided with devices for restoring the air, known as “softeners”.

  • On 3 February 1896, Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman
    had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the broken bone on gelatin photographic plates obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen’s work.

  • [36] Hazards discovered [edit] With the widespread experimentation with X rays after their discovery in 1895 by scientists, physicians, and inventors came many stories of
    burns, hair loss, and worse in technical journals of the time.

  • The photograph of his wife’s hand was the first photograph of a human body part using X-rays.

  • The many applications of X-rays immediately generated enormous interest.

  • The high amount of calcium (Z = 20) in bones, together with their high density, is what makes them show up so clearly on medical radiographs.

  • Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays.

  • He found that something came through, that would expose photographic plates and cause fluorescence.

  • [29] News (and the creation of “shadowgrams”) spread rapidly with Scottish electrical engineer Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton being the first after Röntgen to create an X-ray
    photograph (of a hand).

  • [52][53] In 1918, X-rays were used in association with motion picture cameras to capture the human skeleton in motion.

  • [15][16][17] The name X-rays stuck, although (over Röntgen’s great objections) many of his colleagues suggested calling them Röntgen rays.

  • It was reported in Electrical Review and led to many other reports of problems associated with X-rays being sent in to the publication.

  • A spark gap was typically connected to the high voltage side in parallel to the tube and used for diagnostic purposes.

  • A very high radiation dose over a short period of time causes burns and radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk of radiation-induced cancer.

  • In about 1906, the physicist Charles Barkla discovered that X-rays could be scattered by gases, and that each element had a characteristic X-ray spectrum.

  • Daniel reported that 21 days after taking a picture of Dudley’s skull (with an exposure time of one hour), he noticed a bald spot 5 centimeters (2 in) in diameter on the part
    of his head nearest the X-ray tube: “A plate holder with the plates towards the side of the skull was fastened and a coin placed between the skull and the head.

  • They were noticed by scientists investigating cathode rays produced by such tubes, which are energetic electron beams that were first observed in 1869.

  • For technical and political reasons, the overall project (including the X-ray laser) was defunded (though was later revived by the second Bush Administration as National Missile
    Defense using different technologies).

  • However, as time passed, the X-rays caused the glass to absorb the gas, causing the tube to generate “harder” X-rays until it soon stopped operating.

  • [27][28] Advances in radiology [edit] Taking an X-ray image with early Crookes tube apparatus, late 1800s.

  • Due to its good sensitivity to density differences, it is especially useful for imaging soft tissues.

  • Phase-contrast X-ray imaging refers to a variety of techniques that use phase information of an X-ray beam to form the image.

  • Surgical removal of a bullet whose location was diagnosed with X-rays (see inset) in 1897 Röntgen immediately noticed X-rays could have medical applications.

  • Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered.

  • It has become an important method for visualizing cellular and histological structures in a wide range of biological and medical studies.

  • The plates may have a small addition of fluorescent salt to reduce exposure times.

  • The amount of absorbed radiation depends upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved.

  • To place the increased risk in perspective, a plain chest X-ray will expose a person to the same amount from background radiation that people are exposed to (depending upon
    location) every day over 10 days, while exposure from a dental X-ray is approximately equivalent to 1 day of environmental background radiation.

  • Depending on the procedure and the technology, a single dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 5 to 40 μSv.

  • In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft) X-rays are unwanted, since they are totally absorbed by the body, increasing the radiation dose without contributing
    to the image.

  • X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower energy X-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the body such as brain, lung,
    prostate, and breast.

  • Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of aluminium, called an X-ray filter, is usually placed over the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum.

  • Though X-rays are otherwise invisible, it is possible to see the ionization of the air molecules if the intensity of the X-ray beam is high enough.

  • As of recent, modern fluoroscopy utilizes short bursts of x-rays, rather than a continuous beam, to effectively lower radiation exposure for both the patient and operator.

  • The maximum energy of the produced X-ray photon is limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge, so
    an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV.

  • • The roentgen (R) is an obsolete traditional unit of exposure, which represented the amount of radiation required to create one electrostatic unit of charge of each polarity
    in one cubic centimeter of dry air.

  • [105] Radiotherapy [edit] The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as radiation therapy and is largely used for the management (including palliation) of cancer; it requires
    higher radiation doses than those received for imaging alone.

  • This measure of energy absorbed is called the absorbed dose: • The gray (Gy), which has units of (joules/kilogram), is the SI unit of absorbed dose, and it is the amount of
    radiation required to deposit one joule of energy in one kilogram of any kind of matter.

  • The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue types are harder to see.

  • [143] Units of measure and exposure The measure of X-rays ionizing ability is called the exposure: • The coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) is the SI unit of ionizing radiation exposure,
    and it is the amount of radiation required to create one coulomb of charge of each polarity in one kilogram of matter.

  • Accurate estimation of effective doses due to CT is difficult with the estimation uncertainty range of about for adult head scans depending upon the method used.

  • [119] A head CT scan (1.5 mSv, 64 mGy)[120] that is performed once with and once without contrast agent, would be equivalent to 40 years of background radiation to the head.

  • [138] Using X-ray for inspection and quality control: the differences in the structures of the die and bond wires reveal the left chip to be counterfeit.

  • However, the effect of ionizing radiation on matter (especially living tissue) is more closely related to the amount of energy deposited into them rather than the charge generated.

  • For radiation protection direct exposure hazard is often evaluated using ionization chambers, while dosimeters are used to measure the radiation dose the person has been exposed
    to.

  • [86] Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient, with only about one percent of the electrical energy used by the tube converted into X-rays, and thus most of
    the electric power consumed by the tube is released as waste heat.

  • This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones, making them clearly visible on the radiograph.

  • • Roentgen stereophotogrammetry is used to track movement of bones based on the implantation of markers • X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is a chemical analysis technique
    relying on the photoelectric effect, usually employed in surface science.

  • The frequencies of these lines depend on the material of the target and are therefore called characteristic lines.

  • The increase is traceable to the growth in the use of medical imaging procedures, in particular computed tomography (CT), and to the growth in the use of nuclear medicine.

  • [97] Medical uses Since Röntgen’s discovery that X-rays can identify bone structures, X-rays have been used for medical imaging.

  • The filter is usually made of a metal having one proton less than the anode material (e.g.

  • Bones contain a high concentration of calcium, which, due to its relatively high atomic number, absorbs X-rays efficiently.

  • Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent collimation, and linear polarization.

  • Since human-made sources accounted for only 18% of the total radiation exposure, most of which came from natural sources (82%), medical X-rays only accounted for 10% of total
    American radiation exposure; medical procedures as a whole (including nuclear medicine) accounted for 14% of total radiation exposure.

  • Financial incentives have been shown to have a significant impact on X-ray use with doctors who are paid a separate fee for each X-ray providing more X-rays.

  • [92] A possible explanation is the encounter of two streamers and the production of high-energy run-away electrons;[93] however, microscopic simulations have shown that the
    duration of electric field enhancement between two streamers is too short to produce a significant number of run-away electrons.

  • The Kα line usually has greater intensity than the Kβ one and is more desirable in diffraction experiments.

  • It is not known what exact mechanism in the eye produces the visibility: it could be due to conventional detection (excitation of rhodopsin molecules in the retina), direct
    excitation of retinal nerve cells, or secondary detection via, for instance, X-ray induction of phosphorescence in the eyeball with conventional retinal detection of the secondarily produced visible light.

  • A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely used in research is synchrotron radiation, which is generated by particle accelerators.

  • In crystallography, a copper target is most common, with cobalt often being used when fluorescence from iron content in the sample might otherwise present a problem.

  • [104] Fluoroscopy [edit] Main article: Fluoroscopy Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique commonly used by physicians or radiation therapists to obtain real-time moving images
    of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope.

  • When placing an X-ray tube on the opposite side of a wooden door Röntgen had noted the same blue glow, seeming to emanate from the eye itself, but thought his observations
    to be spurious because he only saw the effect when he used one type of tube.

  • This method may use a contrast material.

  • The outgoing energy of the X-ray can be used to identify the composition of the sample.

  • So, the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous Bremsstrahlung spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines.

  • Computed tomography [edit] Main article: CT scan Head CT scan (transverse plane) slice – a modern application of medical radiography Computed tomography (CT scanning) is a
    medical imaging modality where tomographic images or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different directions.

  • Bremsstrahlung: This is radiation given off by the electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric field near the nuclei.

  • • X-ray microscopic analysis, which uses electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects.

  • An abdominal or chest CT would be the equivalent to 2–3 years of background radiation to the whole body, or 4–5 years to the abdomen or chest, increasing the lifetime cancer
    risk between 1 per 1,000 to 1 per 10,000.

  • Production Whenever charged particles (electrons or ions) of sufficient energy hit a material, X-rays are produced.

  • By 2006, however, medical procedures in the United States were contributing much more ionizing radiation than was the case in the early 1980s.

  • Imaging detectors such as those used for radiography were originally based on photographic plates and later photographic film, but are now mostly replaced by various digital
    detector types such as image plates and flat panel detectors.

  • Other uses Other notable uses of X-rays include: Each dot, called a reflection, in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of scattered X-rays passing
    through a crystal.

  • Visibility While generally considered invisible to the human eye, in special circumstances X-rays can be visible.

  • [112] Experimental and epidemiological data currently do not support the proposition that there is a threshold dose of radiation below which there is no increased risk of
    cancer.

  • [99] Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States.

  • [109][110][111] It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to computed tomography (CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase
    to as high as 1.5–2% with 2007 rates of CT usage.

 

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