• [161] Subsequent research has shown possible routes of synthesis; for example, formamide produces all four ribonucleotides and other biological molecules when warmed in the
  presence of various terrestrial minerals.

• [101] Nucleobases[edit] The majority of organic compounds introduced on Earth by interstellar dust particles have helped to form complex molecules, thanks to their peculiar
  surface-catalytic activities.

• These molecules were not present on early Earth, but other amphiphilic long-chain molecules also form membranes.

• Other approaches (“metabolism-first” hypotheses) focus on understanding how catalysis in chemical systems on the early Earth might have provided the precursor molecules necessary
  for self-replication.

• [116] All four RNA-bases may be synthesized from formamide in high-energy density events like extraterrestrial impacts.

• These could have provided the materials for DNA and RNA to form on the early Earth.

• [154][156] RNA both expresses and maintains genetic information in modern organisms; and the chemical components of RNA are easily synthesized under the conditions that approximated
  the early Earth, which were very different from those that prevail today.

• The prevailing scientific hypothesis is that the transition from non-living to living entities was not a single event, but an evolutionary process of increasing complexity
  that involved the formation of a habitable planet, the prebiotic synthesis of organic molecules, molecular self-replication, self-assembly, autocatalysis, and the emergence of cell membranes.

• [40][41] Bernal said of the Miller–Urey experiment that “it is not enough to explain the formation of such molecules, what is necessary, is a physical-chemical explanation
  of the origins of these molecules that suggests the presence of suitable sources and sinks for free energy.

• The RNA replication systems, which include two ribozymes that catalyze each other’s synthesis, showed a doubling time of the product of about one hour, and were subject to
  Darwinian natural selection under the experimental conditions.

• During its formation, the Earth lost a significant part of its initial mass, and consequentially lacked the gravity to hold molecular hydrogen and the bulk of the original
  inert gases.

• “[42] However, current scientific consensus describes the primitive atmosphere as weakly reducing or neutral,[43][44] diminishing the amount and variety of amino acids that
  could be produced.

• Researchers generally think that current life descends from an RNA world, although other self-replicating molecules may have preceded RNA.

• [5][6][11] The precursors to the development of a living cell like the LUCA are clear enough, if disputed in their details: a habitable world is formed with a supply of minerals
  and liquid water.

• [20][36] J. D. Bernal showed that such mechanisms could form most of the necessary molecules for life from inorganic precursors.

• Studies on vesicles from amphiphiles that might have existed in the prebiotic world have so far been limited to systems of one or two types of amphiphiles.

• The main idea is that the molecular composition of the lipid bodies is a preliminary to information storage, and that evolution led to the appearance of polymers like RNA
  that store information.

• A rain of material from comets could have brought such complex organic molecules to Earth.

• [18] This theory held that “lower” animals were generated by decaying organic substances, and that life arose by chance.

• The mechanism, now ubiquitous in living cells, powers energy conversion in micro-organisms and in the mitochondria of eukaryotes, making it a likely candidate for early life.

• The advantage is that life is not required to have formed on each planet it occurs on, but rather in a more limited set of locations (potentially even a single location),
  and then spread about the galaxy to other star systems via cometary or meteorite impact.

• [140][141][142] Multiple sources of energy were available for chemical reactions on the early Earth.

• Besides the necessary basic organic monomers, compounds that would have prohibited the formation of polymers were also formed in high concentration during the Miller–Urey
  and Joan Oró experiments.

• [84] Complex molecules, including organic molecules, form naturally both in space and on planets.

• Carbon, currently the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe (after hydrogen, helium and oxygen), was formed mainly in white dwarf stars, particularly those
  bigger than twice the mass of the sun.

• The best of these would have favored the constitution of a hypercycle,[128][129] actually a positive feedback composed of two mutual catalysts represented by a membrane site
  and a specific compound trapped in the vesicle.

• [45][46][47] Producing a habitable Earth Early universe with first stars[edit] See also: Chronology of the universe Soon after the Big Bang, which occurred roughly 14 Gya,
  the only chemical elements present in the universe were hydrogen, helium, and lithium, the three lightest atoms in the periodic table.

• [55] The Hadean atmosphere has been characterized as a “gigantic, productive outdoor chemical laboratory,”[56] similar to volcanic gases today which still support some abiotic
  chemistry.

• In the first organisms, the gradient could have been provided by the difference in chemical composition between the flow from a hydrothermal vent and the surrounding seawater.

• B. S. Haldane in 1929 proposed that the first molecules constituting the earliest cells slowly self-organized from a primordial soup.

• The advent of polymers that could replicate, store genetic information, and exhibit properties subject to selection was, it suggested, most likely a critical step in the emergence
  of prebiotic chemical evolution.

• Many approaches to abiogenesis investigate how self-replicating molecules, or their components, came into existence.

• These bodies may expand by insertion of additional lipids, and may spontaneously split into two offspring of similar size and composition.

• [88] Organic compounds are relatively common in space, formed by “factories of complex molecular synthesis” which occur in molecular clouds and circumstellar envelopes, and
  chemically evolve after reactions are initiated mostly by ionizing radiation.

• [77] In other parts of the Isua supracrustal belt, graphite inclusions trapped within garnet crystals are connected to the other elements of life: oxygen, nitrogen, and possibly
  phosphorus in the form of phosphate, providing further evidence for life 3.7 Gya.

• [85] Organic molecules on the early Earth could have had either terrestrial origins, with organic molecule synthesis driven by impact shocks or by other energy sources, such
  as ultraviolet light, redox coupling, or electrical discharges; or extraterrestrial origins (pseudo-panspermia), with organic molecules formed in interstellar dust clouds raining down on to the planet.

• On 1 February 1871 Charles Darwin wrote about these publications to Joseph Hooker, and set out his own speculation, suggesting that the original spark of life may have begun
  in a “warm little pond, with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, light, heat, electricity, &c., present, that a proteine compound was chemically formed ready to undergo still more complex changes.”

• The study of abiogenesis aims to determine how pre-life chemical reactions gave rise to life under conditions strikingly different from those on Earth today.

• [108][109] Laboratory synthesis[edit] As early as the 1860s, experiments demonstrated that biologically relevant molecules can be produced from interaction of simple carbon
  sources with abundant inorganic catalysts.

• [5][6] The challenge for abiogenesis (origin of life)[7][8][9] researchers is to explain how such a complex and tightly-interlinked system could develop by evolutionary steps,
  as at first sight all its parts are necessary to enable it to function.

• [124] Producing suitable vesicles The lipid world theory postulates that the first self-replicating object was lipid-like.

• Such site/compound pairs are transmissible to the daughter vesicles leading to the emergence of distinct lineages of vesicles, which would have allowed Darwinian natural selection.

• [86][87] Observed extraterrestrial organic molecules[edit] See also: List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules and Pseudo-panspermia An organic compound is a chemical
  whose molecules contain carbon.

• [162][163][153] If such conditions were present on early Earth, then natural selection would favor the proliferation of such autocatalytic sets, to which further functionalities
  could be added.

• [135] Such micro-encapsulation would allow for metabolism within the membrane and the exchange of small molecules, while retaining large biomolecules inside.

• [152] However, RNA-based life may not have been the first to exist.

• [135] Competition for membrane molecules would favor stabilized membranes, suggesting a selective advantage for the evolution of cross-linked fatty acids and even the phospholipids
  of today.

• 355 genes appear to be common to all life; their nature implies that the LUCA was anaerobic with the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, deriving energy by chemiosmosis, and maintaining
  its hereditary material with DNA, the genetic code, and ribosomes.

• [48] As these stars reached the end of their lifecycles, they ejected these heavier elements, among them carbon and oxygen, throughout the universe.

• The addition of iron and carbonate minerals, present in early oceans, however produces a diverse array of amino acids.

• [138][139] Producing biology Energy and entropy[edit] Life requires a loss of entropy, or disorder, when molecules organize themselves into living matter.

• [151] Many researchers concur that an RNA world must have preceded the DNA-based life that now dominates.

• [14][8][15][16] A successful theory of the origin of life must explain how all these chemicals came into being.

• [35] Haldane suggested that the Earth’s prebiotic oceans consisted of a “hot dilute soup” in which organic compounds could have formed.

• Therefore, a boundary is needed to separate life processes from non-living matter.

• For example, this was probably important for carbon fixation.

• The 2015 NASA strategy on the origin of life aimed to solve the puzzle by identifying interactions, intermediary structures and functions, energy sources, and environmental
  factors that contributed to the diversity, selection, and replication of evolvable macromolecular systems,[2] and mapping the chemical landscape of potential primordial informational polymers.

• In biology, abiogenesis (from a-‘not’ + Greek bios ‘life’ + genesis ‘origin’) or the origin of life is the natural process by which life has arisen from non-living matter,
  such as simple organic compounds.

• [68] Earliest evidence of life[edit] Main article: Earliest known life forms Life existed on Earth more than 3.5 Gya,[69][70][71] during the Eoarchean when sufficient crust
  had solidified following the molten Hadean.

• The energy required to release strongly-bound ATP has its origin in protons that move across the membrane.

• A genomics approach has sought to characterise the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of modern organisms by identifying the genes shared by Archaea and Bacteria, members
  of the two major branches of life (where the Eukaryotes belong to the archaean branch in the two-domain system).

• [49] According to the nebular hypothesis, the formation and evolution of the Solar System began 4.6 Gya with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular
  cloud.

• [123] The explanation given for the unusual speed of these reactions at such a low temperature is eutectic freezing, which crowds impurities in microscopic pockets of liquid
  within the ice, causing the molecules to collide more often.

• Small RNAs can catalyze all the chemical groups and information transfers required for life.

• [100] A star, HH 46-IR, resembling the sun early in its life, is surrounded by a disk of material which contains molecules including cyanide compounds, hydrocarbons, and carbon
  monoxide.

 

Works Cited

[‘1. The reactions are:
FeS + H2S → FeS2 + 2H+ + 2e−
FeS + H2S + CO2 → FeS2 + HCOOH
2. ^ The reactions are:
Reaction 1: Fayalite + water → magnetite + aqueous silica + hydrogen
3Fe2SiO4 + 2H2O → 2Fe3O4 + 3SiO2 + 2H2
Reaction 2: Forsterite + aqueous
silica → serpentine
3Mg2SiO4 + SiO2 + 4H2O → 2Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
Reaction 3: Forsterite + water → serpentine + brucite
2Mg2SiO4 + 3H2O → Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + Mg(OH)2
Reaction 3 describes the hydration of olivine with water only to yield serpentine and Mg(OH)2
(brucite). Serpentine is stable at high pH in the presence of brucite like calcium silicate hydrate, (C-S-H) phases formed along with portlandite (Ca(OH)2) in hardened Portland cement paste after the hydration of belite (Ca2SiO4), the artificial calcium
equivalent of forsterite. Analogy of reaction 3 with belite hydration in ordinary Portland cement: Belite + water → C-S-H phase + portlandite
2 Ca2SiO4 + 4 H2O → 3 CaO · 2 SiO2 · 3 H2O + Ca(OH)2
1. Walker, Sara I.; Packard, N.; Cody, G. D. (13
November 2017). “Re-conceptualizing the origins of life”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 375 (2109): 20160337. Bibcode:2017RSPTA.37560337W. doi:10.1098/rsta.2016.0337. PMC 5686397. PMID 29133439.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c “NASA Astrobiology
Strategy” (PDF). NASA. 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2017.
3. ^ Trifonov, Edward N. (17 March 2011). “Vocabulary of Definitions of Life Suggests a Definition”. Journal of Biomolecular Structure
and Dynamics. 29 (2): 259–266. doi:10.1080/073911011010524992. PMID 21875147. S2CID 38476092.
4. ^ Voytek, Mary A. (6 March 2021). “About Life Detection”. NASA. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
5. ^ Jump up to:a b Witzany, Guenther (2016). “Crucial steps
to life: From chemical reactions to code using agents” (PDF). BioSystems. 140: 49–57. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2015.12.007. PMID 26723230. S2CID 30962295.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Howell, Elizabeth (8 December 2014). “How Did Life Become Complex, And
Could It Happen Beyond Earth?”. Astrobiology Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 February 2018. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
7. ^ Oparin, Aleksandr Ivanovich (2003) [1938]. The Origin of Life. Translated by Morgulis, Sergius (2 ed.). Mineola,
New York: Courier. ISBN 978-0486495224.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Peretó, Juli (2005). “Controversies on the origin of life” (PDF). International Microbiology. 8 (1): 23–31. PMID 15906258. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2015. Retrieved
1 June 2015.
9. ^ Compare: Scharf, Caleb; et al. (18 December 2015). “A Strategy for Origins of Life Research”. Astrobiology. 15 (12): 1031–1042. Bibcode:2015AsBio..15.1031S. doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1113. PMC 4683543. PMID 26684503. What do we mean
by the origins of life (OoL)? … Since the early 20th century the phrase OoL has been used to refer to the events that occurred during the transition from non-living to living systems on Earth, i.e., the origin of terrestrial biology (Oparin, 1924;
Haldane, 1929). The term has largely replaced earlier concepts such as abiogenesis (Kamminga, 1980; Fry, 2000).
10. ^ Jump up to:a b c Weiss, M. C.; Sousa, F. L.; Mrnjavac, N.; Neukirchen, S.; Roettger, M.; Nelson-Sathi, S.; Martin, W.F. (2016).
“The physiology and habitat of the last universal common ancestor” (PDF). Nature Microbiology. 1 (9): 16116. doi:10.1038/NMICROBIOL.2016.116. PMID 27562259. S2CID 2997255.
11. ^ Tirard, Stephane (20 April 2015). Abiogenesis – Definition. Encyclopedia
of Astrobiology. p. 1. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27833-4_2-4. ISBN 978-3-642-27833-4. Thomas Huxley (1825–1895) used the term abiogenesis in an important text published in 1870. He strictly made the difference between spontaneous generation, which he
did not accept, and the possibility of the evolution of matter from inert to living, without any influence of life. … Since the end of the nineteenth century, evolutive abiogenesis means increasing complexity and evolution of matter from inert to
living state in the abiotic context of evolution of primitive Earth.
12. ^ Graham, Robert W. (February 1990). “Extraterrestrial Life in the Universe” (PDF). NASA (NASA Technical Memorandum 102363). Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio. Archived
(PDF) from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
13. ^ Altermann 2009, p. xvii
14. ^ Oparin 1953, p. vi
15. ^ Warmflash, David; Warmflash, Benjamin (November 2005). “Did Life Come from Another World?”. Scientific American.
293 (5): 64–71. Bibcode:2005SciAm.293e..64W. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1105-64. PMID 16318028.
16. ^ Yarus 2010, p. 47
17. ^ Ward, Peter; Kirschvink, Joe (2015). A New History of Life: the radical discoveries about the origins and evolution
of life on earth. Bloomsbury Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-1608199105.
18. ^ Sheldon 2005
19. ^ Lennox 2001, pp. 229–258
20. ^ Jump up to:a b Bernal 1967
21. ^ Balme, D. M. (1962). “Development of Biology in Aristotle and Theophrastus: Theory
of Spontaneous Generation”. Phronesis. 7 (1–2): 91–104. doi:10.1163/156852862X00052.
22. ^ Ross 1652
23. ^ Dobell 1960
24. ^ Bondeson 1999
25. ^ Levine, R.; Evers, C. “The Slow Death of Spontaneous Generation (1668-1859)”. Archived from the
original on 26 April 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
26. ^ Oparin 1953, p. 196
27. ^ Tyndall 1905, IV, XII (1876), XIII (1878)
28. ^ Horneck, Gerda; Klaus, David M.; Mancinelli, Rocco L. (March 2010). “Space Microbiology”. Microbiology and Molecular
Biology Reviews. 74 (1): 121–156. Bibcode:2010MMBR…74..121H. doi:10.1128/MMBR.00016-09. PMC 2832349. PMID 20197502.
29. ^ Wickramasinghe, Chandra (2011). “Bacterial morphologies supporting cometary panspermia: a reappraisal”. International Journal
of Astrobiology. 10 (1): 25–30. Bibcode:2011IJAsB..10…25W. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.368.4449. doi:10.1017/S1473550410000157. S2CID 7262449.
30. ^ Rampelotto, P. H. (2010). “Panspermia: A promising field of research”. In: Astrobiology Science Conference.
Abs 5224.
31. ^ Chang, Kenneth (12 September 2016). “Visions of Life on Mars in Earth’s Depths”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 September 2016. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
32. ^ “Letter no. 7471, Charles Darwin to Joseph
Dalton Hooker, 1 February (1871)”. Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
33. ^ Priscu, John C. “Origin and Evolution of Life on a Frozen Earth”. Arlington County, Virginia: National Science Foundation. Archived from the original
on 18 December 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
34. ^ Marshall, Michael (11 November 2020). “Charles Darwin’s hunch about early life was probably right”. BBC News. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
35. ^ Bahadur, Krishna (1973). “Photochemical Formation
of Self–sustaining Coacervates” (PDF). Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy. 39 (4): 455–467. doi:10.1016/S0044-4057(75)80076-1. PMID 1242552. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2013.
 Bahadur, Krishna (1975). “Photochemical
Formation of Self-Sustaining Coacervates”. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. 130 (3): 211–218. doi:10.1016/S0044-4057(75)80076-1. OCLC 641018092. PMID 1242552.
36. ^ Bryson 2004, pp. 300–302
37. ^
Bernal 1951
38. ^ Martin, William F. (January 2003). “On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells”. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond. A. 358 (1429): 59–83. doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1183. PMC 1693102. PMID 12594918.
39. ^ Bernal, John Desmond (September 1949). “The Physical Basis of Life”. Proceedings of the Physical Society, Section A. 62 (9): 537–558. Bibcode:1949PPSA…62..537B.
doi:10.1088/0370-1298/62/9/301. S2CID 83754271.
40. ^ Miller, Stanley L. (15 May 1953). “A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions”. Science. 117 (3046): 528–529. Bibcode:1953Sci…117..528M. doi:10.1126/science.117.3046.528.
PMID 13056598.
41. ^ Parker, Eric T.; Cleaves, Henderson J.; Dworkin, Jason P.; et al. (5 April 2011). “Primordial synthesis of amines and amino acids in a 1958 Miller H2S-rich spark discharge experiment”. PNAS. 108 (14): 5526–5531. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.5526P.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1019191108. PMC 3078417. PMID 21422282.
42. ^ Bernal 1967, p. 143
43. ^ Jump up to:a b Cleaves, H. James; Chalmers, John H.; Lazcano, Antonio; et al. (April 2008). “A Reassessment of Prebiotic Organic Synthesis in Neutral Planetary
Atmospheres”. Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres. 38 (2): 105–115. Bibcode:2008OLEB…38..105C. doi:10.1007/s11084-007-9120-3. PMID 18204914. S2CID 7731172.
44. ^ Chyba, Christopher F. (13 May 2005). “Rethinking Earth’s Early Atmosphere”.
Science. 308 (5724): 962–963. doi:10.1126/science.1113157. PMID 15890865. S2CID 93303848.
45. ^ Barton et al. 2007, pp. 93–95
46. ^ Bada & Lazcano 2009, pp. 56–57
47. ^ Bada, Jeffrey L.; Lazcano, Antonio (2 May 2003). “Prebiotic Soup – Revisiting
the Miller Experiment” (PDF). Science. 300 (5620): 745–746. doi:10.1126/science.1085145. PMID 12730584. S2CID 93020326. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
48. ^ Marigo, Paola; et al. (6 July 2020). “Carbon
star formation as seen through the non-monotonic initial–final mass relation”. Nature Astronomy. 152 (11): 1102–1110. arXiv:2007.04163. Bibcode:2020NatAs…4.1102M. doi:10.1038/s41550-020-1132-1. S2CID 220403402.
49. ^ “WMAP- Life in the Universe”.
50. ^
“Formation of Solar Systems: Solar Nebular Theory”. University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved 27 September 2019.
51. ^ “Age of the Earth”. United States Geological Survey. 9 July 2007. Archived from the original on 23 December 2005. Retrieved
10 January 2006.
52. ^ Dalrymple 2001, pp. 205–221
53. ^ Fesenkov 1959, p. 9
54. ^ Kasting, James F. (12 February 1993). “Earth’s Early Atmosphere” (PDF). Science. 259 (5097): 920–926. Bibcode:1993Sci…259..920K. doi:10.1126/science.11536547.
PMID 11536547. S2CID 21134564. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
55. ^ Morse, John (September 1998). “Hadean Ocean Carbonate Geochemistry”. Aquatic Geochemistry. 4 (3/4): 301–319. Bibcode:1998MinM…62.1027M.
doi:10.1023/A:1009632230875. S2CID 129616933.
56. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Follmann, Hartmut; Brownson, Carol (November 2009). “Darwin’s warm little pond revisited: from molecules to the origin of life”. Naturwissenschaften. 96 (11): 1265–1292.
Bibcode:2009NW…..96.1265F. doi:10.1007/s00114-009-0602-1. PMID 19760276. S2CID 23259886.
57. ^ Morse, John W.; MacKenzie, Fred T. (1998). “Hadean Ocean Carbonate Geochemistry”. Aquatic Geochemistry. 4 (3–4): 301–319. Bibcode:1998MinM…62.1027M.
doi:10.1023/A:1009632230875. S2CID 129616933.
58. ^ Wilde, Simon A.; Valley, John W.; Peck, William H.; Graham, Colin M. (11 January 2001). “Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago”
(PDF). Nature. 409 (6817): 175–178. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..175W. doi:10.1038/35051550. PMID 11196637. S2CID 4319774. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
59. ^ Rosing, Minik T.; Bird, Dennis K.; Sleep, Norman H.;
et al. (22 March 2006). “The rise of continents – An essay on the geologic consequences of photosynthesis”. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 232 (2–4): 99–113. Bibcode:2006PPP…232…99R. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.01.007. Archived
(PDF) from the original on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
60. ^ Jump up to:a b c Dodd, Matthew S.; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; et al. (1 March 2017). “Evidence for early life in Earth’s oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates”. Nature.
543 (7643): 60–64. Bibcode:2017Natur.543…60D. doi:10.1038/nature21377. PMID 28252057. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
61. ^ Gomes, Rodney; Levison, Hal F.; Tsiganis, Kleomenis; Morbidelli, Alessandro (26
May 2005). “Origin of the cataclysmic Late Heavy Bombardment period of the terrestrial planets”. Nature. 435 (7041): 466–469. Bibcode:2005Natur.435..466G. doi:10.1038/nature03676. PMID 15917802.
62. ^ Sleep, Norman H.; Zahnle, Kevin J.; Kasting,
James F.; et al. (9 November 1989). “Annihilation of ecosystems by large asteroid impacts on early Earth”. Nature. 342 (6246): 139–142. Bibcode:1989Natur.342..139S. doi:10.1038/342139a0. PMID 11536616. S2CID 1137852.
63. ^ Chyba, Christopher; Sagan,
Carl (9 January 1992). “Endogenous production, exogenous delivery and impact-shock synthesis of organic molecules: an inventory for the origins of life”. Nature. 355 (6356): 125–132. Bibcode:1992Natur.355..125C. doi:10.1038/355125a0. PMID 11538392.
S2CID 4346044.
64. ^ Furukawa, Yoshihiro; Sekine, Toshimori; Oba, Masahiro; et al. (January 2009). “Biomolecule formation by oceanic impacts on early Earth”. Nature Geoscience. 2 (1): 62–66. Bibcode:2009NatGe…2…62F. doi:10.1038/NGEO383.
65. ^
Maher, Kevin A.; Stevenson, David J. (18 February 1988). “Impact frustration of the origin of life”. Nature. 331 (6157): 612–614. Bibcode:1988Natur.331..612M. doi:10.1038/331612a0. PMID 11536595. S2CID 4284492.
66. ^ Mann, Adam (24 January 2018).
“Bashing holes in the tale of Earth’s troubled youth”. Nature. 553 (7689): 393–395. Bibcode:2018Natur.553..393M. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-01074-6.
67. ^ Davies 1999, p. 155
68. ^ Bock & Goode 1996
69. ^ Schopf, J. William; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy
B.; Czaja, Andrew D.; Tripathi, Abhishek B. (5 October 2007). “Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils”. Precambrian Research. 158 (3–4): 141–155. Bibcode:2007PreR..158..141S. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009.
70. ^ Schopf, J.
William (29 June 2006). “Fossil evidence of Archaean life”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 361 (1470): 869–885. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1834. PMC 1578735. PMID 16754604.
71. ^ Raven & Johnson 2002, p. 68
72. ^ Djokic, Tara; Van
Kranendonk, Martin J.; Campbell, Kathleen A.; Walter, Malcolm R.; Ward, Colin R. (9 May 2017). “Earliest signs of life on land preserved in ca. 3.5 Gao hot spring deposits”. Nature Communications. 8: 15263. Bibcode:2017NatCo…815263D. doi:10.1038/ncomms15263.
PMC 5436104. PMID 28486437.
73. ^ Schopf, J. William; Kitajima, Kouki; Spicuzza, Michael J.; Kudryavtsev, Anatolly B.; Valley, John W. (2017). “SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope
compositions”. PNAS. 115 (1): 53–58. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115…53S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1718063115. PMC 5776830. PMID 29255053.
74. ^ Tyrell, Kelly April (18 December 2017). “Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years
ago”. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved 18 December 2017.
75. ^ Ohtomo, Yoko; Kakegawa, Takeshi; Ishida, Akizumi; et al. (January 2014). “Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks”. Nature Geoscience. 7
(1): 25–28. Bibcode:2014NatGe…7…25O. doi:10.1038/ngeo2025.
76. ^ Noffke, Nora; Christian, Daniel; Wacey, David; Hazen, Robert M. (16 November 2013). “Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Gyo
Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia”. Astrobiology. 13 (12): 1103–1124. Bibcode:2013AsBio..13.1103N. doi:10.1089/ast.2013.1030. PMC 3870916. PMID 24205812.
77. ^ Davies 1999
78. ^ Hassenkam, T.; Andersson, M. P.; Dalby, K. N.; Mackenzie,
D.M.A.; Rosing, M.T. (2017). “Elements of Eoarchean life trapped in mineral inclusions”. Nature. 548 (7665): 78–81. Bibcode:2017Natur.548…78H. doi:10.1038/nature23261. PMID 28738409. S2CID 205257931.
79. ^ O’Donoghue, James (21 August 2011).
“Oldest reliable fossils show early life was a beach”. New Scientist. 211: 13. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(11)62064-2. Archived from the original on 30 June 2015.
80. ^ Wacey, David; Kilburn, Matt R.; Saunders, Martin; et al. (October 2011). “Microfossils
of sulphur-metabolizing cells in 3.4-billion-year-old rocks of Western Australia”. Nature Geoscience. 4 (10): 698–702. Bibcode:2011NatGe…4..698W. doi:10.1038/ngeo1238.
81. ^ Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark; et al. (19
October 2015). “Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon”. PNAS. 112 (47): 14518–14521. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11214518B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1517557112. PMC 4664351. PMID 26483481. Early edition, published online before print.
82. ^
Baumgartner, Rafael; Van Kranendonk, Martin; Wacey, David; et al. (2019). “Nano−porous pyrite and organic matter in 3.5-billion-year-old stromatolites record primordial life” (PDF). Geology. 47 (11): 1039–1043. Bibcode:2019Geo….47.1039B. doi:10.1130/G46365.1.
S2CID 204258554.
83. ^ Djokic, Tara; Van Kranendonk, Martin; Cambell, Kathleen; Walter, Malcolm (2017). “Earliest signs of life on land preserved in ca. 3.5 Ga hot spring deposits”. Nature Communications. 3.
84. ^ Landau, Elizabeth (12 October
2016). “Building Blocks of Life’s Building Blocks Come From Starlight”. NASA. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
85. ^ Jump up to:a b Ehrenfreund, Pascale; Cami, Jan (December 2010). “Cosmic carbon chemistry:
from the interstellar medium to the early Earth”. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2 (12): a002097. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a002097. PMC 2982172. PMID 20554702.
86. ^ Geballe, Thomas R.; Najarro, Francisco; Figer, Donald F.; et al. (10
November 2011). “Infrared diffuse interstellar bands in the Galactic Centre region”. Nature. 479 (7372): 200–202. arXiv:1111.0613. Bibcode:2011Natur.479..200G. doi:10.1038/nature10527. PMID 22048316. S2CID 17223339.
87. ^ Klyce 2001
88. ^ Jump
up to:a b c d Hoover, Rachel (21 February 2014). “Need to Track Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe? NASA’s Got an App for That”. Ames Research Center. NASA. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
89. ^ Goncharuk,
Vladislav V.; Zui, O. V. (February 2015). “Water and carbon dioxide as the main precursors of organic matter on Earth and in space”. Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology. 37 (1): 2–3. doi:10.3103/S1063455X15010026. S2CID 97965067.
90. ^ Abou
Mrad, Ninette; Vinogradoff, Vassilissa; Duvernay, Fabrice; et al. (2015). “Laboratory experimental simulations: Chemical evolution of the organic matter from interstellar and cometary ice analogs”. Bulletin de la Société Royale des Sciences de Liège.
84: 21–32. Bibcode:2015BSRSL..84…21A. Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 6 April 2015.
91. ^ Oba, Yasuhiro; et al. (26 April 2022). “Identifying the wide diversity of extraterrestrial purine and pyrimidine nucleobases in carbonaceous
meteorites”. Nature Communications. 13 (2008): 2008. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.2008O. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-29612-x. PMC 9042847. PMID 35473908. S2CID 248402205.
92. ^ “‘Life chemical’ detected in comet”. BBC News. London. 18 August 2009. Archived
from the original on 25 May 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
93. ^ Thompson, William Reid; Murray, B. G.; Khare, Bishun Narain; Sagan, Carl (30 December 1987). “Coloration and darkening of methane clathrate and other ices by charged particle irradiation:
Applications to the outer solar system”. Journal of Geophysical Research. 92 (A13): 14933–14947. Bibcode:1987JGR….9214933T. doi:10.1029/JA092iA13p14933. PMID 11542127.
94. ^ Goldman, Nir; Tamblyn, Isaac (20 June 2013). “Prebiotic Chemistry within
a Simple Impacting Icy Mixture”. Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 117 (24): 5124–5131. Bibcode:2013JPCA..117.5124G. doi:10.1021/jp402976n. PMID 23639050. S2CID 5144843.
95. ^ “NASA Ames PAH IR Spectroscopic Database”. NASA. Archived from the original
on 29 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
96. ^ Jump up to:a b c Hudgins, Douglas M.; Bauschlicher, Charles W. Jr.; Allamandola, Louis J. (10 October 2005). “Variations in the Peak Position of the 6.2 μm Interstellar Emission Feature: A Tracer of
N in the Interstellar Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Population”. The Astrophysical Journal. 632 (1): 316–332. Bibcode:2005ApJ…632..316H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.218.8786. doi:10.1086/432495. S2CID 7808613.
97. ^ Jump up to:a b c Des Marais, David J.;
Allamandola, Louis J.; Sandford, Scott; et al. (2009). “Cosmic Distribution of Chemical Complexity”. Ames Research Center. Mountain View, California: NASA. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
98. ^ Jump up to:a
b Carey, Bjorn (18 October 2005). “Life’s Building Blocks ‘Abundant in Space'”. Space.com. Watsonville, California: Imaginova. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
99. ^ García-Hernández, Domingo. A.; Manchado,
Arturo; García-Lario, Pedro; et al. (20 November 2010). “Formation of Fullerenes in H-Containing Planetary Nebulae”. The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 724 (1): L39–L43. arXiv:1009.4357. Bibcode:2010ApJ…724L..39G. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/724/1/L39.
S2CID 119121764.
100. ^ d’Ischia, Marco; Manini, Paola; Moracci, Marco; et al. (21 August 2019). “Astrochemistry and Astrobiology: Materials Science in Wonderland?”. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 20 (17): 4079. doi:10.3390/ijms20174079.
PMC 6747172. PMID 31438518.
101. ^ Gudipati, Murthy S.; Yang, Rui (1 September 2012). “In-situ Probing of Radiation-induced Processing of Organics in Astrophysical Ice Analogs – Novel Laser Desorption Laser Ionization Time-of-flight Mass Spectroscopic
Studies”. The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 756 (1): L24. Bibcode:2012ApJ…756L..24G. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/756/1/L24. S2CID 5541727.
102. ^ Jump up to:a b Gallori, Enzo (June 2011). “Astrochemistry and the origin of genetic material”. Rendiconti
Lincei. 22 (2): 113–118. doi:10.1007/s12210-011-0118-4. S2CID 96659714. “Paper presented at the Symposium ‘Astrochemistry: molecules in space and time’ (Rome, 4–5 November 2010), sponsored by Fondazione ‘Guido Donegani’, Accademia Nazionale dei
Lincei.”
103. ^ Martins, Zita (February 2011). “Organic Chemistry of Carbonaceous Meteorites”. Elements. 7 (1): 35–40. doi:10.2113/gselements.7.1.35.
104. ^ Martins, Zita; Botta, Oliver; Fogel, Marilyn L.; et al. (15 June 2008). “Extraterrestrial
nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite”. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 270 (1–2): 130–136. arXiv:0806.2286. Bibcode:2008E&PSL.270..130M. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026. S2CID 14309508.
105. ^ Callahan, Michael P.; Smith, Karen E.; Cleaves,
H. James, II; et al. (23 August 2011). “Carbonaceous meteorites contain a wide range of extraterrestrial nucleobases”. PNAS. 108 (34): 13995–13998. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10813995C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1106493108. PMC 3161613. PMID 21836052.
106. ^ Steigerwald,
John (8 August 2011). “NASA Researchers: DNA Building Blocks Can Be Made in Space”. Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA. Archived from the original on 23 June 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
107. ^ Kwok, Sun; Zhang, Yong (3 November 2011). “Mixed aromatic–aliphatic
organic nanoparticles as carriers of unidentified infrared emission features”. Nature. 479 (7371): 80–83. Bibcode:2011Natur.479…80K. doi:10.1038/nature10542. PMID 22031328. S2CID 4419859.
108. ^ Jørgensen, Jes K.; Favre, Cécile; Bisschop, Suzanne
E.; et al. (2012). “Detection of the simplest sugar, glycolaldehyde, in a solar-type protostar with ALMA” (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 757 (1): L4. arXiv:1208.5498. Bibcode:2012ApJ…757L…4J. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/757/1/L4. S2CID 14205612.
Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2015.
109. ^ Furukawa, Yoshihiro; Chikaraishi, Yoshito; Ohkouchi, Naohiko; et al. (13 November 2019). “Extraterrestrial ribose and other sugars in primitive meteorites”. PNAS.
116 (49): 24440–24445. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11624440F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1907169116. PMC 6900709. PMID 31740594.
110. ^ Oró, Joan; Kimball, Aubrey P. (February 1962). “Synthesis of purines under possible primitive earth conditions: II. Purine intermediates
from hydrogen cyanide”. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 96 (2): 293–313. doi:10.1016/0003-9861(62)90412-5. PMID 14482339.
111. ^ Cleaves II, Henderson (2010). “The origin of the biologically coded amino acids”. Journal of Theoretical Biology.
263 (4): 490–498. Bibcode:2010JThBi.263..490C. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2009.12.014. PMID 20034500.
112. ^ Breslow, R. (1959). “On the Mechanism of the Formose Reaction”. Tetrahedron Letters. 1 (21): 22–26. doi:10.1016/S0040-4039(01)99487-0.
113. ^
Oró, Joan (16 September 1961). “Mechanism of Synthesis of Adenine from Hydrogen Cyanide under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions”. Nature. 191 (4794): 1193–1194. Bibcode:1961Natur.191.1193O. doi:10.1038/1911193a0. PMID 13731264. S2CID 4276712.
114. ^
Jump up to:a b Saladino, Raffaele; Crestini, Claudia; Pino, Samanta; et al. (March 2012). “Formamide and the origin of life” (PDF). Physics of Life Reviews. 9 (1): 84–104. Bibcode:2012PhLRv…9…84S. doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2011.12.002. hdl:2108/85168.
PMID 22196896.
115. ^ Jump up to:a b Saladino, Raffaele; Botta, Giorgia; Pino, Samanta; et al. (July 2012). “From the one-carbon amide formamide to RNA all the steps are prebiotically possible”. Biochimie. 94 (7): 1451–1456. doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2012.02.018.
hdl:11573/515604. PMID 22738728.
116. ^ Marlaire, Ruth, ed. (3 March 2015). “NASA Ames Reproduces the Building Blocks of Life in Laboratory”. Ames Research Center. NASA. Archived from the original on 5 March 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
117. ^
Ferus, Martin; Nesvorný, David; Šponer, Jiří; et al. (2015). “High-energy chemistry of formamide: A unified mechanism of nucleobase formation”. PNAS. 112 (3): 657–662. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112..657F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1412072111. PMC 4311869. PMID 25489115.
118. ^
Basile, Brenda; Lazcano, Antonio; Oró, Joan (1984). “Prebiotic syntheses of purines and pyrimidines”. Advances in Space Research. 4 (12): 125–131. Bibcode:1984AdSpR…4l.125B. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(84)90554-4. PMID 11537766.
119. ^ Orgel, Leslie
E. (August 2004). “Prebiotic Adenine Revisited: Eutectics and Photochemistry”. Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres. 34 (4): 361–369. Bibcode:2004OLEB…34..361O. doi:10.1023/B:ORIG.0000029882.52156.c2. PMID 15279171. S2CID 4998122.
120. ^
Robertson, Michael P.; Miller, Stanley L. (29 June 1995). “An efficient prebiotic synthesis of cytosine and uracil”. Nature. 375 (6534): 772–774. Bibcode:1995Natur.375..772R. doi:10.1038/375772a0. PMID 7596408. S2CID 4351012.
121. ^ Fox, Douglas
(February 2008). “Did Life Evolve in Ice?”. Discover. Archived from the original on 30 June 2008. Retrieved 3 July 2008.
122. ^ Levy, Matthew; Miller, Stanley L.; Brinton, Karen; Bada, Jeffrey L. (June 2000). “Prebiotic Synthesis of Adenine and
Amino Acids Under Europa-like Conditions”. Icarus. 145 (2): 609–613. Bibcode:2000Icar..145..609L. doi:10.1006/icar.2000.6365. PMID 11543508.
123. ^ Menor-Salván, César; Ruiz-Bermejo, Marta; Guzmán, Marcelo I.; et al. (20 April 2009). “Synthesis
of Pyrimidines and Triazines in Ice: Implications for the Prebiotic Chemistry of Nucleobases”. Chemistry: A European Journal. 15 (17): 4411–4418. doi:10.1002/chem.200802656. PMID 19288488.
124. ^ Roy, Debjani; Najafian, Katayoun; von Ragué Schleyer,
Paul (30 October 2007). “Chemical evolution: The mechanism of the formation of adenine under prebiotic conditions”. PNAS. 104 (44): 17272–17277. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10417272R. doi:10.1073/pnas.0708434104. PMC 2077245. PMID 17951429.
125. ^ Lancet,
Doron (30 December 2014). “Systems Prebiology-Studies of the origin of Life”. The Lancet Lab. Rehovot, Israel: Department of Molecular Genetics; Weizmann Institute of Science. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
126. ^
Segré, Daniel; Ben-Eli, Dafna; Deamer, David W.; Lancet, Doron (February 2001). “The Lipid World” (PDF). Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres. 31 (1–2): 119–145. Bibcode:2001OLEB…31..119S. doi:10.1023/A:1006746807104. PMID 11296516. S2CID
10959497. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 June 2015.
127. ^ Jump up to:a b c Chen, Irene A.; Walde, Peter (July 2010). “From Self-Assembled Vesicles to Protocells”. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2 (7): a002170. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a002170.
PMC 2890201. PMID 20519344.
128. ^ Eigen, Manfred; Schuster, Peter (November 1977). “The Hypercycle. A Principle of Natural Self-Organization. Part A: Emergence of the Hypercycle” (PDF). Naturwissenschaften. 64 (11): 541–65. Bibcode:1977NW…..64..541E.
doi:10.1007/bf00450633. PMID 593400. S2CID 42131267. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016.
 Eigen, Manfred; Schuster, Peter (1978). “The Hypercycle. A Principle of Natural Self-Organization. Part B: The Abstract Hypercycle” (PDF).
Naturwissenschaften. 65 (1): 7–41. Bibcode:1978NW…..65….7E. doi:10.1007/bf00420631. S2CID 1812273. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016.
 Eigen, Manfred; Schuster, Peter (July 1978). “The Hypercycle. A Principle of Natural
Self-Organization. Part C: The Realistic Hypercycle” (PDF). Naturwissenschaften. 65 (7): 341–369. Bibcode:1978NW…..65..341E. doi:10.1007/bf00439699. S2CID 13825356. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2016.
129. ^ Markovitch, Omer; Lancet,
Doron (Summer 2012). “Excess Mutual Catalysis Is Required for Effective Evolvability”. Artificial Life. 18 (3): 243–266. doi:10.1162/artl_a_00064. PMID 22662913. S2CID 5236043.
130. ^ Tessera, Marc (2011). “Origin of Evolution versus Origin of Life:
A Shift of Paradigm”. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 12 (6): 3445–3458. doi:10.3390/ijms12063445. PMC 3131571. PMID 21747687. Special Issue: “Origin of Life 2011”
131. ^ Onsager, Lars (1931). “Reciprocal Relations in Irreversible Processes
I and II”. Physical Review. 37 (4): 405. Bibcode:1931PhRv…37..405O. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.37.405.
132. ^ Onsager, Lars (1931). “Reciprocal Relations in Irreversible Processes I and II”. Physical Review (38): 2265. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.38.2265.
133. ^
Prigogine, Ilya (1967). An Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes. New York: Wiley.
134. ^ “Exploring Life’s Origins: Protocells”. Exploring Life’s Origins: A Virtual Exhibit. Arlington County, Virginia: National Science
Foundation. Archived from the original on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2014.
135. ^ Jump up to:a b c Chen, Irene A. (8 December 2006). “The Emergence of Cells During the Origin of Life”. Science. 314 (5805): 1558–1559. doi:10.1126/science.1137541.
PMID 17158315.
136. ^ Zimmer, Carl (26 June 2004). “What Came Before DNA?”. Discover. Archived from the original on 19 March 2014.
137. ^ Shapiro, Robert (June 2007). “A Simpler Origin for Life”. Scientific American. 296 (6): 46–53. Bibcode:2007SciAm.296f..46S.
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0607-46. PMID 17663224. Archived from the original on 14 June 2015.
138. ^ Chang 2007
139. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Lane, Nick (2015). The Vital Question: Why Is Life The Way It Is?. Profile Books. pp. 129–140. ISBN 978-1781250365.
140. ^
Sharov, Alexei A.; Gordon, Richard (2018). “Life Before Earth”. Habitability of the Universe Before Earth: Life Before Earth. Astrobiology Exploring Life on Earth and Beyond. Academic Press. pp. 265–296. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-811940-2.00011-3. ISBN
9780128119402. S2CID 117048600.
141. ^ Ladyman, J.; Lambert, J.; Weisner, K. B. (2013). “What is a Complex System?”. European Journal of the Philosophy of Science. 3: 33–67. doi:10.1007/s13194-012-0056-8. S2CID 18787276.
142. ^ Esposito, M.; Lindenberg,
Katja; Van den Broeck, C. (2010). “Entropy production as correlation between system and reservoir”. New Journal of Physics. 12 (1): 013013. arXiv:0908.1125. Bibcode:2010NJPh…12a3013E. doi:10.1088/1367-2630/12/1/013013. S2CID 26657293.
143. ^ Bar-Nun,
A.; Bar-Nun, N.; Bauer, S. H.; Sagan, Carl (24 April 1970). “Shock Synthesis of Amino Acids in Simulated Primitive Environments”. Science. 168 (3930): 470–473. Bibcode:1970Sci…168..470B. doi:10.1126/science.168.3930.470. PMID 5436082. S2CID 42467812.
144. ^
Anbar, Michael (27 September 1968). “Cavitation during Impact of Liquid Water on Water: Geochemical Implications”. Science. 161 (3848): 1343–1344. Bibcode:1968Sci…161.1343A. doi:10.1126/science.161.3848.1343. PMID 17831346.
145. ^ Dharmarathne,
Leena; Grieser, Franz (7 January 2016). “Formation of Amino Acids on the Sonolysis of Aqueous Solutions Containing Acetic Acid, Methane, or Carbon Dioxide, in the Presence of Nitrogen Gas”. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 120 (2): 191–199. Bibcode:2016JPCA..120..191D.
doi:10.1021/acs.jpca.5b11858. PMID 26695890.
146. ^ Patehebieke, Yeersen; Zhao, Ze-Run; Wang, Su; Xu, Hao-Xing; Chen, Qian-Qian; Wang, Xiao (2021). “Cavitation as a plausible driving force for the prebiotic formation of N9 purine nucleosides”. Cell
Reports Physical Science. 2 (3): 100375. Bibcode:2021CRPS….200375P. doi:10.1016/j.xcrp.2 Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/korona4reel/14084749296/’]