tropical cyclone

 

  • [96] Physically, the winds, or flow field, in the vicinity of a tropical cyclone may be treated as having two parts: the flow associated with the storm itself, and the large-scale
    background flow of the environment.

  • [37] Several factors are required for these thunderstorms to develop further, including sea surface temperatures of around 27 °C (81 °F) and low vertical wind shear surrounding
    the system,[37][38] atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere, enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center, a pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance,[38] There is a limit on tropical
    cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path.

  • [13] High ocean heat content, also known as Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential, allows storms to achieve a higher intensity.

  • [14] Most tropical cyclones that experience rapid intensification are traversing regions of high ocean heat content rather than lower values.

  • These include making landfall, moving over cooler water, encountering dry air, or interacting with other weather systems; however, once a system has dissipated or lost its
    tropical characteristics, its remnants could regenerate a tropical cyclone if environmental conditions become favorable.

  • Weakening or dissipation can also occur if a storm experiences vertical wind shear which causes the convection and heat engine to move away from the center; this normally
    ceases the development of a tropical cyclone.

  • A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement
    of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls.

  • [10] Factors that influence intensity Warm sea surface temperatures are required in order for tropical cyclones to form and strengthen.

  • [99] When wind shear and latent heat release is present, tropical cyclones tend to move towards regions where potential vorticity is increasing most quickly.

  • ACE is calculated by summing the squares of a cyclone’s sustained wind speed, every six hours as long as the system is at or above tropical storm intensity and either tropical
    or subtropical.

  • Usually, an anticyclone in the upper layers of the troposphere above the storm must be present as well—for extremely low surface pressures to develop, air must be rising very
    rapidly in the eyewall of the storm, and an upper-level anticyclone helps channel this air away from the cyclone efficiently.

  • Tropical cyclones are assessed by forecasters according to an array of patterns, including curved banding features, shear, central dense overcast, and eye, in order to determine
    the T-number and thus assess the intensity of the storm.

  • [5] Intensity Tropical cyclone intensity is based on wind speeds and pressure; relationships between winds and pressure are often used in determining the intensity of a storm.

  • [15] High ocean heat content values can help to offset the oceanic cooling caused by the passage of a tropical cyclone, limiting the effect this cooling has on the storm.

  • Around the world, tropical cyclones are classified in different ways, based on the location (tropical cyclone basins), the structure of the system and its intensity.

  • [97] In this way, tropical cyclone motion may be represented to first-order as advection of the storm by the local environmental flow.

  • The pressure altitude at which the background winds are most correlated with a tropical cyclone’s motion is known as the “steering level”.

  • [32] The Brown ocean effect can allow a tropical cyclone to maintain or increase its intensity following landfall, in cases where there has been copious rainfall, through
    the release of latent heat from the saturated soil.

  • [95] Tropical cyclones can be treated as local maxima of vorticity suspended within the large-scale background flow of the environment.

  • Background A tropical cyclone is the generic term for a warm-cored, non-frontal synoptic-scale low-pressure system over tropical or subtropical waters around the world.

  • Tropical cyclones are very rare in the South Atlantic (although occasional examples do occur) due to consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone.

  • [21][22] Dry air entraining into a tropical cyclone’s core has a negative effect on its development and intensity by diminishing atmospheric convection and introducing asymmetries
    in the storm’s structure.

  • This will deprive the storm of such tropical characteristics as a warm core with thunderstorms near the center, so that it becomes a remnant low-pressure area.

  • [30] The Fujiwhara effect, which involves interaction between two tropical cyclones, can weaken and ultimately result in the dissipation of the weaker of two tropical cyclones
    by reducing the organization of the system’s convection and imparting horizontal wind shear.

  • [95] It represents the movement of the storm due to prevailing winds and other wider environmental conditions, similar to “leaves carried along by a stream”.

  • [82] In a weaker storm, the eye may be obscured by the central dense overcast, which is the upper-level cirrus shield that is associated with a concentrated area of strong
    thunderstorm activity near the center of a tropical cyclone.

  • [37] Within this broad area of low-pressure, air is heated over the warm tropical ocean and rises in discrete parcels, which causes thundery showers to form.

  • [15] The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially, a process known as upwelling,[17] which can negatively influence
    subsequent cyclone development.

  • [103] Other weather systems such as mid-latitude troughs and broad monsoon gyres can also influence tropical cyclone motion by modifying the steering flow.

  • [4] Around the world, a tropical cyclone is generally deemed to have formed once mean surface winds in excess of 35 kn (65 km/h; 40 mph) are observed.

  • Cloud cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean, by shielding the ocean surface from direct sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage.

  • [74][76][77] However, standards vary from basin to basin with some tropical depressions named in the Western Pacific, while tropical cyclones have to have a significant amount
    of gale-force winds occurring around the center before they are named within the Southern Hemisphere.

  • [49] Rapid intensification Main article: Rapid intensification On occasion, tropical cyclones may undergo a process known as rapid intensification, a period in which the maximum
    sustained winds of a tropical cyclone increase by 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph) or more within 24 hours.

  • These storms are therefore typically strongest when over or near water, and they weaken quite rapidly over land.

  • [78][81] Structure Eye and center Main article: Eye (cyclone) The eye and surrounding clouds of 2018 Hurricane Florence as seen from the International Space Station At the
    center of a mature tropical cyclone, air sinks rather than rises.

  • This replenishing of moisture-bearing air after rain may cause multi-hour or multi-day extremely heavy rain up to 40 km (25 mi) from the coastline, far beyond the amount of
    water that the local atmosphere holds at any one time.

  • [4] These days, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around the world, over half of which develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75
    mph) or more.

  • All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days.

  • Coastal damage may be caused by strong winds and rain, high waves (due to winds), storm surges (due to wind and severe pressure changes), and the potential of spawning tornadoes.

  • On the other hand, Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential is one of such non-conventional subsurface oceanographic parameters influencing the cyclone intensity.

  • [31] Tropical cyclones typically weaken while situated over a landmass because conditions are often unfavorable as a result of the lack of oceanic forcing.

  • [4] Wind-pressure relationships (WPRs) are used as a way to determine the pressure of a storm based on its wind speed.

  • [60] These techniques, however, fail to appreciate the duration, intensity, power or size of tropical cyclones.

  • [33] Orographic lift can cause an significant increase in the intensity of the convection of a tropical cyclone when its eye moves over a mountain, breaking the capped boundary
    layer that had been restraining it.

  • [108][109] Due to a direct dependence of the beta drift on angular momentum, the size of a tropical cyclone can impact the influence of beta drift on its motion; beta drift
    imparts a greater influence on the movement of larger tropical cyclones than that of smaller ones.

  • [106] The magnitude of the component of tropical cyclone motion associated with the beta drift ranges between 1–3 m/s (3.6–10.8 km/h; 2.2–6.7 mph) and tends to be larger for
    more intense tropical cyclones and at higher latitudes.

  • [58] Should a tropical cyclone make landfall or pass over an island, its circulation could start to break down, especially if it encounters mountainous terrain.

  • [1][2] The systems generally have a well-defined center which is surrounded by deep atmospheric convection and a closed wind circulation at the surface.

  • [4] The SMAP uses an L-band radiometer channel to determine the wind speeds of tropical cyclones at the ocean surface, and has been shown to be reliable at higher intensities
    and under heavy rainfall conditions, unlike scatterometer-based and other radiometer-based instruments.

  • [61] Surface observations, such as ship reports, land stations, mesonets, coastal stations, and buoys, can provide information on a tropical cyclone’s intensity or the direction
    it is traveling.

  • [98] This environmental flow is termed the “steering flow” and is the dominant influence on tropical cyclone motion.

  • Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water.

  • [48] Cyclone formation is usually reduced 3 days prior to the wave’s crest and increased during the 3 days after.

  • For example, within the Northern Atlantic and Eastern Pacific basins, a tropical cyclone with wind speeds of over 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) is called a hurricane, while it
    is called a typhoon or a severe cyclonic storm within the Western Pacific or North Indian Oceans.

  • [35][36] Formation Main article: Tropical cyclogenesis Diagram of a tropical cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer, but have
    been noted in nearly every month in most tropical cyclone basins.

  • [59] This, combined with the increased friction over land areas, leads to the weakening and dissipation of the tropical cyclone.

  • [97] The motion of stronger tropical cyclones is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a thicker portion of troposphere compared to weaker tropical cyclones
    whose motion is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a narrower extent of the lower troposphere.

  • Tropical cyclones draw in air from a large area and concentrate the water content of that air (from atmospheric moisture and moisture evaporated from water) into precipitation
    over a much smaller area.

  • [11][12] Higher sea surface temperatures result in faster intensification rates and sometimes even rapid intensification.

  • [59] Over a mountainous terrain, a system can quickly weaken; however, over flat areas, it may endure for two to three days before circulation breaks down and dissipates.

  • [42][43][44][45] Rossby waves can aid in the formation of a new tropical cyclone by disseminating the energy of an existing, mature storm.

  • [71] The Hurricane Severity Index is a scale that can assign up to 50 points to a system; up to 25 points come from intensity, while the other 25 come from the size of the
    storm’s wind field.

  • Winds recorded at flight level can be converted to find the wind speeds at the surface.

  • [72][73] Classification and naming Intensity classifications Main article: Tropical cyclone scales Three tropical cyclones of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season at different
    stages of development.

  • The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth’s rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis
    of rotation.

  • [59] When a system makes landfall on a large landmass, it is cut off from its supply of warm moist maritime air and starts to draw in dry continental air.

  • [34] Jet streams can both enhance and inhibit tropical cyclone intensity by influencing the storm’s outflow as well as vertical wind shear.

  • In the Indian Ocean, South Pacific, or (rarely) South Atlantic, comparable storms are referred to simply as “tropical cyclones”, and such storms in the Indian Ocean can also
    be called “severe cyclonic storms”.

  • Water temperatures must be extremely high (near or above 30 °C (86 °F)), and water of this temperature must be sufficiently deep such that waves do not upwell cooler waters
    to the surface.

 

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