rome

 

  • [47] The weak emperors of the fifth century could not stop the decay, leading to the deposition of Romulus Augustus on 22 August 476, which marked the end of the Western Roman
    Empire and, for many historians, the beginning of the Middle Ages.

  • [56] On Christmas night of 800, Charlemagne was crowned in Rome as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope Leo III: on that occasion, the city hosted for the first time the
    two powers whose struggle for control was to be a constant of the Middle Ages.

  • Middle Ages 15th-century illustration depicting the Sack of Rome (410) by the Visigothic king Alaric I After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome was first
    under the control of Odoacer and then became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom before returning to East Roman control after the Gothic War, which devastated the city in 546 and 550.

  • After the fall of the Empire in the west, which marked the beginning of the Middle Ages, Rome slowly fell under the political control of the Papacy, and in the 8th century,
    it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870.

  • Eventually, the city successively became the capital of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, and is regarded by many as the first-ever Imperial city
    and metropolis.

  • [43] Trajan’s Column, triumphal column and place where the relics of Emperor Trajan are placed After the end of the Severan Dynasty in 235, the Empire entered into a 50-year
    period known as the Crisis of the Third Century during which there were numerous putsches by generals, who sought to secure the region of the empire they were entrusted with due to the weakness of central authority in Rome.

  • The War of the League of Cognac caused the first plunder of the city in more than five hundred years since the previous sack; in 1527, the Landsknechts of Emperor Charles
    V sacked the city, bringing an abrupt end to the golden age of the Renaissance in Rome.

  • That year Rome was declared the capital of Italy even though it was still under the Pope’s control.

  • [63] Late modern and contemporary The rule of the Popes was interrupted by the short-lived Roman Republic (1798–1800), which was established under the influence of the French
    Revolution.

  • [63] Early modern history Main article: Roman Renaissance Almost 500 years old, this map of Rome by Mario Cartaro (from 1575) shows the city’s primary monuments.

  • While Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it a major human settlement for almost three millennia
    and one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in Europe.

  • [63] The return of the pope to Rome in that year unleashed the Western Schism (1377–1418), and for the next forty years, the city was affected by the divisions which rocked
    the Church.

  • Before his early death, Raphael also promoted for the first time the preservation of the ancient ruins.

  • [35] During the reign of Nero, two thirds of the city was ruined after the Great Fire of Rome, and the persecution of Christians commenced.

  • He transformed the town of Byzantium into his new residence, which, however, was not officially anything more than an imperial residence like Milan or Trier or Nicomedia until
    given a city prefect in May 359 by Constantius II; Constantinople.

  • [27][28] Monarchy and republic Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire After the foundation by Romulus according to a legend,[25] Rome
    was ruled for a period of 244 years by a monarchical system, initially with sovereigns of Latin and Sabine origin, later by Etruscan kings.

  • Beginning with the Renaissance, almost all popes since Nicholas V (1447–1455) pursued a coherent architectural and urban programme over four hundred years, aimed at making
    the city the artistic and cultural centre of the world.

  • The Bishops of Rome were also seen (and still are seen by Catholics) as the successors of Peter, who is considered the first Bishop of Rome.

  • [40] The Roman Empire at its greatest extent in 117 AD, approximately 6.5×106 km2 (2.5×106 sq mi)[42] of land surface The Roman Forum are the remains of those buildings that
    during most of Ancient Rome’s time represented the political, legal, religious and economic centre of the city and the neuralgic centre of all the Roman civilisation.

  • [63] This brought to Rome a century of internal peace, which marked the beginning of the Renaissance.

  • [23] These developments, which according to archaeological evidence took place during the mid-eighth century BC, can be considered as the “birth” of the city.

  • [23] Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome was founded deliberately in the middle of the eighth century BC, as the legend of Romulus suggests,
    remains a fringe hypothesis.

  • the capital of the known world, an expression which had already been used in the Republican period.

  • Several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum.

  • [13] In this way, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Renaissance,[14] and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism.

  • The so-called Edict of Milan of 313, actually a fragment of a letter from Licinius to the governors of the eastern provinces, granted freedom of worship to everyone, including
    Christians, and ordered the restoration of confiscated church properties upon petition to the newly created vicars of dioceses.

  • Vatican City (the smallest country in the world)[4] is an independent country inside the city boundaries of Rome, the only existing example of a country within a city.

  • [36][37][38] Rome was established as a de facto empire, which reached its greatest expansion in the second century under the Emperor Trajan.

  • In the 12th century, this administration, like other European cities, evolved into the commune, a new form of social organisation controlled by the new wealthy classes.

  • The old St. Peter’s Basilica built by Emperor Constantine the Great[64] (which by then was in a dilapidated state) was demolished and a new one begun.

  • Rome then became the focus of hopes of Italian reunification after the rest of Italy was united as the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 with the temporary capital in Florence.

  • The city thus became of increasing importance as the centre of the Catholic Church.

  • In 509 BC, the Romans expelled the last king from their city and established an oligarchic republic.

  • [18] Etymology Roman representation of the god Tiberinus, Capitoline Hill in Rome According to the Ancient Romans’ founding myth,[19] the name Roma came from the city’s founder
    and first king, Romulus.

  • Because of this, in the second half of the second century and during the first century BC there were conflicts both abroad and internally: after the failed attempt of social
    reform of the populares Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus,[33] and the war against Jugurtha,[33] there was a civil war from which the general Sulla emerged victorious.

  • [56] Since this period, three powers tried to rule the city: the pope, the nobility (together with the chiefs of militias, the judges, the Senate and the populace), and the
    Frankish king, as king of the Lombards, patricius, and Emperor.

  • [57] After the decay of Carolingian power, Rome fell prey to feudal chaos: several noble families fought against the pope, the emperor, and each other.

  • Constantine the Great undertook a major reform of the bureaucracy, not by changing the structure but by rationalising the competencies of the several ministries during the
    years 325–330, after he defeated Licinius, emperor in the East, at the end of 324.

  • This angered the people of the city, who then unroofed the building where they met and imprisoned them until they had nominated the new pope; this marked the birth of the
    conclave.

  • [56] These three parties (theocratic, republican, and imperial) were a characteristic of Roman life during the entire Middle Ages.

  • Rome is often referred to as the City of Seven Hills due to its geographic location, and also as the “Eternal City”.

  • [63] An idealist and a lover of ancient Rome, Cola dreamed about a rebirth of the Roman Empire: after assuming power with the title of Tribuno, his reforms were rejected by
    the populace.

  • Rome became able to compete with other major European cities of the time in terms of wealth, grandeur, the arts, learning and architecture.

  • [25] This legend had to be reconciled with a dual tradition, set earlier in time, that had the Trojan refugee Aeneas escape to Italy and found the line of Romans through his
    son Iulus, the namesake of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

  • During the 1860s, the last vestiges of the Papal States were under French protection thanks to the foreign policy of Napoleon III.

  • During the 5th century, the emperors from the 430s mostly resided in the capital city, Rome.

  • [59] Pope Boniface VIII, born Caetani, was the last pope to fight for the church’s universal domain; he proclaimed a crusade against the Colonna family and, in 1300, called
    for the first Jubilee of Christianity, which brought millions of pilgrims to Rome.

  • [63] Forced to flee, Cola returned as part of the entourage of Cardinal Albornoz, who was charged with restoring the Church’s power in Italy.

  • [59] In this period, the papacy played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs and exercising additional political
    powers.

  • The Papal States were restored in June 1800, but during Napoleon’s reign Rome was annexed as a Département of the French Empire: first as Département du Tibre (1808–1810)
    and then as Département Rome (1810–1814).

  • [55] The Bishop of Rome, called the Pope, was important since the early days of Christianity because of the martyrdom of both the apostles Peter and Paul there.

  • [44] In 292, he created two ‘junior’ emperors, the Caesars, one for each Augustus, Constantius for Britain, Gaul, and Spain whose seat of power was in Trier and Galerius in
    Sirmium in the Balkans.

  • [63] The ruling popes until the first half of the 16th century, from Nicholas V, founder of the Vatican Library, to Pius II, humanist and literate, from Sixtus IV, a warrior
    pope, to Alexander VI, immoral and nepotist, from Julius II, soldier and patron, to Leo X, who gave his name to this period (“the century of Leo X”), all devoted their energy to the greatness and the beauty of the Eternal City and to the patronage
    of the arts.

  • In 1871, Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, which, in 1946, became the Italian Republic.

  • [65] During the Age of Enlightenment, new ideas reached the Eternal City, where the papacy supported archaeological studies and improved the people’s welfare.

  • [40] This time was also characterised by the spread of the Christian religion, preached by Jesus Christ in Judea in the first half of the first century (under Tiberius) and
    popularised by his apostles through the empire and beyond.

  • [32] From the beginning of the 2nd century BC, power was contested between two groups of aristocrats: the optimates, representing the conservative part of the Senate, and
    the populares, which relied on the help of the plebs (urban lower class) to gain power.

  • The conquest of Gaul made Caesar immensely powerful and popular, which led to a second civil war against the Senate and Pompey.

  • The seat of government in the Western Roman Empire was transferred to Ravenna after the Siege of Milan in 402.

  • He funded the building of several churches and allowed clergy to act as arbitrators in civil suits (a measure that did not outlast him but which was restored in part much
    later).

  • In 296, he elevated Maximian to Augustus of the western half, where he ruled mostly from Mediolanum when not on the move.

  • [23] Nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city developed gradually through the aggregation (“synoecism”) of several villages around the largest one, placed above the
    Palatine.

  • He was the last emperor of a unified empire: after his death in 395, his sons, Arcadius and Honorius divided the empire into a western and an eastern part.

  • [19] They decided to build a city, but after an argument, Romulus killed his brother and the city took his name.

  • [29] After becoming master of Latium, Rome led several wars (against the Gauls, Osci-Samnites and the Greek colony of Taranto, allied with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus) whose result
    was the conquest of the Italian peninsula, from the central area up to Magna Graecia.

  • The corruption of the Popes and the huge expenses for their building projects led, in part, to the Reformation and, in turn, the Counter-Reformation.

  • Even so, strenuous efforts were made to maintain the monumental centre, the palatine, and the largest baths, which continued to function until the Gothic siege of 537.

  • The Persian Empire invaded from the east several times during the 230s to 260s but were eventually defeated.

  • [30] The third and second century BC saw the establishment of Roman hegemony over the Mediterranean and the Balkans, through the three Punic Wars (264–146 BC) fought against
    the city of Carthage and the three Macedonian Wars (212–168 BC) against Macedonia.

  • [63] Back in power for a short time, Cola was soon lynched by the populace, and Albornoz took possession of the city.

  • [49] The population decline coincided with the general collapse of urban life in the West in the fifth and sixth centuries, with few exceptions.

  • Majestic works, as the new Saint Peter’s Basilica, the Sistine Chapel and Ponte Sisto (the first bridge to be built across the Tiber since antiquity, although on Roman foundations)
    were created.

  • Between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, each hill between the sea and the Capitol was topped by a village (on the Capitol Hill, a village is attested
    since the end of the 14th century BC).

 

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Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/wwootton/9204730092/’]