• [85] In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his “B” notebook on Transmutation of Species, and on page 36 wrote “I think” above his first evolutionary tree Early in March, Darwin
  moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell’s social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage,[86] who described God as a programmer of laws.

• His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring “a new &
  important theory” on their role in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.

• “[118] Darwin’s “sandwalk” at Down House in Kent was his usual “thinking path”[119] By July, Darwin had expanded his “sketch” into a 230-page “Essay”, to be expanded with
  his research results if he died prematurely.

• [18][104] As he later wrote in his Autobiography: In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus
  on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations
  would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed.

• Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work…[105] By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and
  a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that “every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected”,[106] thinking this comparison “a beautiful part of my theory”.

• [71][113] Darwin’s book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he
  then wrote his first “pencil sketch” of his theory of natural selection.

• [29] Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson’s natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism.

• Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,[87] but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel’s letter
  praising Lyell’s approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species.

• [80] Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal
  College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin.

• British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work, due to natural history collecting being encouraged throughout the British Empire, and there was a danger of specimens
  just being left in storage.

• Darwin’s father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking
  experts to describe the collections.

• [70][71] In Cape Town, South Africa, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on
  “that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others” as “a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process”.

• FitzRoy had given him the first volume of Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology, which set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods,[II]
  and Darwin saw things Lyell’s way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology.

• [129] He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming
  adapted to “diversified places in the economy of nature”.

• [11][12] Darwin’s early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates.

• [126] In eight years of work on barnacles, Darwin’s theory helped him to find “homologies” showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new
  conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes.

• Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally “denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species”.

• [15] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.

• [18] For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections, in particular,
  the barnacles.

• [83][84] Darwin’s first paper showed that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell’s enthusiastic backing he read it to the Geological Society of London
  on 4 January 1837.

• The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817.

• As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while HMS Beagle surveyed and charted coasts.

• Questions of how to combine his diary into the Narrative were resolved at the end of the month when FitzRoy accepted Broderip’s advice to make it a separate volume, and Darwin
  began work on his Journal and Remarks.

• [78][79] Inception of Darwin’s evolutionary theory Further information: Inception of Darwin’s theory While still a young man, Darwin joined the scientific elite; portrait
  by George Richmond On 2 October 1836 Beagle anchored at Falmouth, Cornwall.

• [120] In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation.

• [34] He met other leading parson-naturalists who saw scientific work as religious natural theology, becoming known to these dons as “the man who walks with Henslow”.

• [116][117] Hooker replied “There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species.

• [73] He later wrote that such facts “seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species”.

• [95] Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists
  and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers.

• [44] Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.

• [76] Darwin first heard of this at Cape Town,[77] and at Ascension Island read of Sedgwick’s prediction that Darwin “will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe”.

• [102] Malthus and natural selection Continuing his research in London, Darwin’s wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus’s An Essay on the Principle of Population.

• [123] In 1847, Hooker read the “Essay” and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin’s
  opposition to continuing acts of creation.

• [55] On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and anthropological insights into both native and
  colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories.

• [39] He read John Herschel’s new book, Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (1831), which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding
  such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt’s Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799–1804.

• [89] By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that “one species does change into another”
  to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal Macrauchenia, which resembled a giant guanaco, a llama relative.

• He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected
  on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.

• He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.

• Inspired with “a burning zeal” to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics.

• [69] Darwin’s Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on geology and natural history.

• [9] In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process he called natural
  selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.

• [30] Darwin’s neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who sent him to Christ’s College, Cambridge in January 1828, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first
  step towards becoming an Anglican country parson.

• [37] In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.

• [65][66] In Australia, the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.

• [18][46] He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters
  including a copy of his journal for his family.

• He returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary place on HMS Beagle with
  captain Robert FitzRoy, a position for a gentleman rather than “a mere collector”.

• [13] His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836 established Darwin as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell’s concept of gradual
  geological change.

• [90] Overwork, illness, and marriage Further information: Health of Charles Darwin While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work.

• [42][43] Robert Darwin objected to his son’s planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood II, to agree
  to (and fund) his son’s participation.

• The result of this would be the formation of new species.

• [58][59] Three Fuegians on board, who had been seized during the first Beagle voyage then given Christian education in England, were returning with a missionary.

• The finds were shipped to England, and scientists found the fossils of great interest.

• One day, Grant praised Lamarck’s evolutionary ideas.

• [94] His Journal was printed and ready for publication by the end of February 1838, as was the first volume of the Narrative, but FitzRoy was still working hard to finish
  his own volume.

• [82] In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to arrange expert classification of his collections, and prepare his own research for publication.

• [19][20] By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact.

• Darwin was well prepared to compare this to Augustin de Candolle’s “warring of the species” of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers
  of a species kept roughly stable.

• He wrote that the “final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes”, so that “One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand
  wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones.

• [27] In Darwin’s second year at the university, he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural-history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students
  with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science.

• On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell’s presidential address presented Owen’s findings on Darwin’s fossils, stressing geographical
  continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.

• [25] Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the well regarded University of Edinburgh Medical
  School with his brother Erasmus in October 1825.

• [32] Bicentennial portrait by Anthony Smith of Darwin as a student, in the courtyard at Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he had rooms[33] During the first few months of
  Darwin’s enrollment at Christ’s College, his second cousin William Darwin Fox was still studying there.

• [72] When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Islands fox were
  correct, “such facts undermine the stability of Species”, then cautiously added “would” before “undermine”.

• Advantages under “Marry” included “constant companion and a friend in old age … better than a dog anyhow”, against points such as “less money for books” and “terrible loss
  of time”.

• [74] Without telling Darwin, extracts from his letters to Henslow had been read to scientific societies, printed as a pamphlet for private distribution among members of the
  Cambridge Philosophical Society, and reported in magazines,[75] including The Athenaeum.

• [88] The two rheas were distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.

• After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.

• [110] Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research Further information: Development of Darwin’s theory Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin Darwin
  now had the framework of his theory of natural selection “by which to work”,[105] as his “prime hobby”.

• [10] Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.

 

Works Cited

[‘^ Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism, but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell’s ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy’s
diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plains were raised beaches, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.(Browne 1995, pp. 186, 414)
II. ^ In the section
“Morphology” of Chapter XIII of On the Origin of Species, Darwin commented on homologous bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: “What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging,
the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?”[242] and in the concluding chapter: “The framework of bones
being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications.”[243]
III. 1 2 3 In On the Origin of Species Darwin
mentioned human origins in his concluding remark that “In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by
gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history.”[143]
In “Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory” he referred to sexual selection: “I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so
strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous.”[142]
In
The Descent of Man of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage: “During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought
that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my ‘Origin of Species,’ that by this work ‘light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;’ and this implies
that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth.”[244] In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: “it has been said by several
critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the ‘Origin of Species,’
and I there stated that it was applicable to man.”[245]
IV. ^ See, for example, WILLA volume 4, Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education by Deborah M. De Simone: “Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of
thinkers who matured during the period of “intellectual chaos” caused by Darwin’s Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing
social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration.”
V. ^ See, for example, the song “A lady fair of lineage high” from Gilbert and Sullivan’s Princess Ida, which describes the descent of man (but not woman!)
from apes.
VI. ^ Darwin’s belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from John Edmonstone in 1826.[27] Early in the Beagle voyage, Darwin nearly lost
his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy’s defence and praise of slavery. (Darwin 1958, p. 74) He wrote home about “how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England
if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro
character.” (Darwin 1887, p. 246) Regarding Fuegians, he “could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power
of improvement”, but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like Jemmy Button: “It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with
the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here.” (Darwin 1845, pp. 205, 207–208)
In the Descent of Man, he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians’ and Edmonstone’s minds to Europeans’ when arguing against “ranking the so-called races of
man as distinct species”.[246]
He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of Patagonian men, women, and children, “Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians.
Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?”(Darwin 1845, p. 102)
VII. 1 2 Geneticists studied human heredity as Mendelian inheritance, while eugenics movements sought to manage society,
with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this movement as impractical pseudoscience. A shift from voluntary arrangements to “negative” eugenics included
compulsory sterilisation laws in the United States, copied by Nazi Germany as the basis for Nazi eugenics based on virulent racism and “racial hygiene”.
(Thurtle, Phillip (17 December 1996). “the creation of genetic identity”. SEHR. Vol. 5, no. Supplement:
Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism. Retrieved 11 November 2008. Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). “The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection”. Genetics. Vol. 154, no. April 2000. pp. 1419–1426. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Retrieved
11 November 2008.Wilkins, John. “Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics”. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2008.)
VIII. ^ David Quammen writes of his “theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane
botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a ‘horrid bore’ – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him… alone”.
David Quammen, “The Brilliant Plodder” (review of Ken Thompson, Darwin’s Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy, University of Chicago Press, 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate
of an Evolutionary Eden, Yale University Press, 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834, Edinburgh University Press, 222 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 7
(23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.
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