• [27] When Euripides’ plays are sequenced in time, they also reveal that his outlook might have changed, providing a “spiritual biography”, along these lines: • an early period
  of high tragedy (Medea, Hippolytus) • a patriotic period at the outset of the Peloponnesian War (Children of Heracles, The Suppliants) • a middle period of disillusionment at the senselessness of war (Hecuba, The Trojan Women) • an escapist
  period with a focus on romantic intrigue (Ion, Iphigenia in Tauris, Helen) • a final period of tragic despair (Orestes, Phoenician Women, The Bacchae) However, about 80% of his plays have been lost, and even the extant plays do not present
  a fully consistent picture of his ‘spiritual’ development (for example, Iphigenia in Aulis is dated with the ‘despairing’ Bacchae, yet it contains elements that became typical of New Comedy).

• For achieving his end Euripides’ regular strategy is a very simple one: retaining the old stories and the great names, as his theatre required, he imagines his people as contemporaries
  subjected to contemporary kinds of pressures, and examines their motivations, conduct and fate in the light of contemporary problems, usages and ideals.

• Aeschylus had written his own epitaph commemorating his life as a warrior fighting for Athens against Persia, without any mention of his success as a playwright; and Sophocles
  was celebrated by his contemporaries for his social gifts, and contributions to public life as a state official; but there are no records of Euripides’ public life except as a dramatist—he could well have been “a brooding and bookish recluse”.

• [36] Traditional myth provided the subject matter, but the dramatist was meant to be innovative, which led to novel characterizations of heroic figures[37] and use of the
  mythical past as a tool for discussing present issues.

• Reception Euripides has aroused, and continues to arouse, strong opinions for and against his work: He was a problem to his contemporaries and he is one still; over the course
  of centuries since his plays were first produced he has been hailed or indicted under a bewildering variety of labels.

• [citation needed] Unlike Sophocles, who established the setting and background of his plays in the introductory dialogue, Euripides used a monologue in which a divinity or
  human character simply tells the audience all it needs to know to understand what follows.

• [38] The difference between Euripides and his older colleagues was one of degree: his characters talked about the present more controversially and pointedly than those of
  Aeschylus and Sophocles, sometimes even challenging the democratic order.

• [73] However, “his plays continued to be applauded even after those of Aeschylus and Sophocles had come to seem remote and irrelevant”;[4] they became school classics in the
  Hellenistic period (as mentioned in the introduction) and, due to Seneca’s adaptation of his work for Roman audiences, “it was Euripides, not Aeschylus or Sophocles, whose tragic muse presided over the rebirth of tragedy in Renaissance Europe.

• But in Cyclops (the only complete satyr-play that survives), Euripides structured the entertainment more like a tragedy and introduced a note of critical irony typical of
  his other work.

• Potential for comedy lay in his use of ‘contemporary’ characters, in his sophisticated tone, his relatively informal Greek (see In Greek below), and in his ingenious use of
  plots centred on motifs that later became standard in Menander’s New Comedy (for example the ‘recognition scene’).

• Many more errors came from the tendency of actors to interpolate words and sentences, producing so many corruptions and variations that a law was proposed by Lycurgus of Athens
  in 330 BC “that the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides should be written down and preserved in a public office; and that the town clerk should read the text over with the actors; and that all performances which did not comply with
  this regulation should be illegal.

• [citation needed] The Trojan Women, for example, is a powerfully disturbing play on the theme of war’s horrors, apparently critical of Athenian imperialism (it was composed
  in the aftermath of the Melian massacre and during the preparations for the Sicilian Expedition),[60] yet it features the comic exchange between Menelaus and Hecuba quoted above, and the chorus considers Athens, the “blessed land of Theus”,
  to be a desirable refuge—such complexity and ambiguity are typical both of his “patriotic” and “anti-war” plays.

• [54] Sometimes condemned by critics as an unimaginative way to end a story, the spectacle of a “god” making a judgement or announcement from a theatrical crane might actually
  have been intended to provoke scepticism about the religious and heroic dimension of his plays.

• Believed to have been composed in the wilds of Macedonia, Bacchae also dramatizes a primitive side to Greek religion, and some modern scholars have interpreted this particular
  play biographically, therefore, as: • a kind of death-bed conversion or renunciation of atheism; • the poet’s attempt to ward off the charge of impiety that was later to overtake his friend Socrates; • evidence of a new belief that religion
  cannot be analysed rationally.

• [clarification needed][4] As stated above, however, opinions continue to diverge, so that modern readers might actually “seem to feel a special affinity with Sophocles”;[81]
  one recent critic might dismiss the debates in Euripides’ plays as “self-indulgent digression for the sake of rhetorical display”;[82] and one spring to the defence: “His plays are remarkable for their range of tones and the gleeful inventiveness,
  which morose critics call cynical artificiality, of their construction.

• [5] Euripides is identified with theatrical innovations that have profoundly influenced drama down to modern times, especially in the representation of traditional, mythical
  heroes as ordinary people in extraordinary circumstances.

• [28] In the Bacchae, he restores the chorus and messenger speech to their traditional role in the tragic plot, and the play appears to be the culmination of a regressive or
  archaizing tendency in his later works (for which see Chronology below).

• [57] Aeschylus and Sophocles were innovative, but Euripides had arrived at a position in the “ever-changing genre” where he could easily move between tragic, comic, romantic,
  and political effects.

• [29] One of his earliest extant plays, Medea, includes a speech that he seems to have written in defence of himself as an intellectual ahead of his time (spoken by Medea):[10]
  [298–302].

• [72] Less than a hundred years later, Aristotle developed an almost “biological’ theory of the development of tragedy in Athens: the art form grew under the influence of Aeschylus,
  matured in the hands of Sophocles, then began its precipitous decline with Euripides.

• [citation needed] Euripides and other playwrights accordingly composed more and more arias for accomplished actors to sing, and this tendency became more marked in his later
  plays:[33] tragedy was a “living and ever-changing genre”[34] (cf.

• He also became “the most tragic of poets”,[nb 1] focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way previously unknown.

• The comic poet Aristophanes is the earliest known critic to characterize Euripides as a spokesman for destructive, new ideas associated with declining standards in both society
  and tragedy (see Reception for more).

• He wrote plays which have been widely understood as patriotic pieces supporting Athens’ war against Sparta and others which many have taken as the work of the anti-war dramatist
  par excellence, even as attacks on Athenian imperialism.

• [65] His lyrical skills are not just confined to individual poems: “A play of Euripides is a musical whole…one song echoes motifs from the preceding song, while introducing
  new ones.

• His plays, and those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, indicate a difference in outlook between the three—a generation gap probably due to the Sophistic enlightenment in the middle
  decades of the 5th century: Aeschylus still looked back to the archaic period, Sophocles was in transition between periods, and Euripides was fully imbued with the new spirit of the classical age.

• [47] They are self-conscious about speaking formally, and their rhetoric is shown to be flawed, as if Euripides were exploring the problematical nature of language and communication:
  “For speech points in three different directions at once, to the speaker, to the person addressed, to the features in the world it describes, and each of these directions can be felt as skewed”.

• [14] The apocryphal account, that he composed his works in a cave on Salamis island, was a late tradition, probably symbolizing the isolation of an intellectual ahead of his
  time.

• With the introduction of the third actor (attributed to Aeschylus by Themistius; to Sophocles by Aristotle),[32] acting also began to be regarded as a skill worth prizes,
  requiring a long apprenticeship in the chorus.

• Plutarch also provides the story that the victorious Spartan generals, having planned the demolition of Athens and the enslavement of its people, grew merciful after being
  entertained at a banquet by lyrics from Euripides’ play Electra: “they felt that it would be a barbarous act to annihilate a city which produced such men” (Life of Lysander).

• [22] According to Aristophanes, the alleged co-author was a celebrated actor, Cephisophon, who also shared the tragedian’s house and his wife,[23] while Socrates taught an
  entire school of quibblers like Euripides: So what’s stylish is not to sit beside Socrates and chatter, casting the arts aside and ignoring the best of the tragedian’s craft.

• Much of Euripides’ work was lost and corrupted; but the period also included triumphs by scholars and copyists, thanks to whom much was recovered and preserved.

• [69] Moreover, to have been singled out by Aristophanes for so much comic attention is proof of popular interest in his work.

• [71] According to Plutarch, Euripides had been very well received in Sicily, to the extent that after the failure of the Sicilian Expedition, many Athenian captives were released,
  simply for being able to teach their captors whatever fragments they could remember of his work.

• [26] He is presented as such in The Acharnians, where Aristophanes shows him to be living morosely in a precarious house, surrounded by the tattered costumes of his disreputable
  characters (and yet Agathon, another tragic poet, is discovered in a later play, Thesmophoriazusae, to be living in circumstances almost as bizarre).

• He has been seen as a profound explorer of human psychology and also a rhetorical poet who subordinated consistency of character to verbal effect; as a misogynist and a feminist;
  as a realist who brought tragic action down to the level of everyday life and as a romantic poet who chose unusual myths and exotic settings.

• Many Greek tragedians make use of dramatic irony to bring out the emotion and realism of their characters or plays, but Euripides uses irony to foreshadow events and occasionally
  amuse his audience.

• [39] Speakers in the plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles sometimes distinguish between slaves who are servile by nature and those servile by circumstance, but Euripides’ speakers
  go further, positing an individual’s mental, rather than social or physical, state as a true indication of worth.

• [58] Traditional myth with its exotic settings, heroic adventures, and epic battles offered potential for romantic melodrama as well as for political comments on a war theme,[59]
  so that his plays are an extraordinary mix of elements.

• [80] Today, as in the time of Euripides, traditional assumptions are constantly under challenge, and audiences therefore have a natural affinity with the Euripidean outlook,[36]
  which seems nearer to ours, for example, than the Elizabethan.

• Euripides’ mother was a humble vendor of vegetables, according to the comic tradition, yet his plays indicate that he had a liberal education and hence a privileged background.

• [76] August Wilhelm’s Vienna lectures on dramatic art and literature went through four editions between 1809 and 1846; and, in them, he opined that Euripides “not only destroyed
  the external order of tragedy but missed its entire meaning”.

• Euripides was more insistent, using major characters as well.

• “[79] In the English-speaking world, the pacifist Gilbert Murray played an important role in popularizing Euripides, influenced perhaps by his anti-war plays.

• Ancient biographies hold that Euripides chose a voluntary exile in old age, dying in Macedonia,[10] but recent scholarship casts doubt on these sources.

• This fourth play in his tetralogy for 438 BC (i.e., it occupied the position conventionally reserved for satyr plays) is a “tragedy”, featuring Heracles as a satyric hero
  in conventional satyr-play scenes: an arrival, a banquet, a victory over an ogre (in this case, death), a happy ending, a feast, and a departure for new adventures.

• More of his plays have survived intact than those of Aeschylus and Sophocles together, partly because his popularity grew as theirs declined[3][4]—he became, in the Hellenistic
  Age, a cornerstone of ancient literary education, along with Homer, Demosthenes, and Menander.

• His comic touches can be thought to intensify the overall tragic effect, and his realism, which often threatens to make his heroes look ridiculous, marks a world of debased
  heroism: “The loss of intellectual and moral substance becomes a central tragic statement”.

• [44] The dialogue often contrasts so strongly with the mythical and heroic setting that it can seem like Euripides aimed at parody.

• Such comic ‘evidence’ suggests that Athenians admired Euripides even while they mistrusted his intellectualism, at least during the long war with Sparta.

• [49] Ancient Roman wall painting from House of the Vettii in Pompeii, showing the death of Pentheus, as portrayed in Euripides’s Bacchae Like Euripides, both Aeschylus and
  Sophocles created comic effects, contrasting the heroic with the mundane, but they employed minor supporting characters for that purpose.

• This view influenced Friedrich Nietzsche, who seems, however, not to have known the Euripidean plays well.

• This became the “standard edition” for the future, and it featured some of the literary conventions that modern readers expect: there was still no spacing between words; little
  or no punctuation; and no stage directions; but abbreviated names denoted changes of speaker; lyrics were broken into “cola” and “strophai”, or lines and stanzas; and a system of accentuation was introduced.

• [62] Most of the big innovations in tragedy were made by Aeschylus and Sophocles, but “Euripides made innovations on a smaller scale that have impressed some critics as cumulatively
  leading to a radical change of direction”.

• He has been recognized as the precursor of New Comedy and also what Aristotle called him: ‘the most tragic of poets’ (Poetics 1453a30).

• [13] Such biographical details derive almost entirely from three unreliable sources:[14] • folklore, employed by the ancients to lend colour to the lives of celebrated authors;
  • parody, employed by the comic poets to ridicule the tragic poets; and • ‘autobiographical’ clues gleaned from his extant plays (a mere fraction of his total output).

• [citation needed] For example, in his play Heracles, Heracles comments that all men love their children and wish to see them grow.

• [48] For example, in the quotation above, Hecuba presents herself as a sophisticated intellectual describing a rationalized cosmos, but the speech is ill-suited to her audience,
  the unsophisticated listener Menelaus, and is found to not suit the cosmos either (her grandson is murdered by the Greeks).

• The performance area included a circular floor (called orchestra) where the chorus could dance, a space for actors (three speaking actors in Euripides’ time), a backdrop or
  skene, and some special effects: an ekkyklema (used to bring the skene’s “indoors” outdoors) and a mechane (used to lift actors in the air, as in deus ex machina).

• This new approach led him to pioneer developments that later writers adapted to comedy, some of which are characteristic of romance.

• Fragment of a vellum codex from the fourth or fifth centuries AD, showing choral anapaests from Medea, lines 1087–91; tiny though it is, the fragment influences modern editions
  of the play[nb 4] After this creation of a standard edition, the text was fairly safe from errors, besides slight and gradual corruption introduced with tedious copying.

• “[52] Some think unpredictable behaviour realistic in tragedy: “everywhere in Euripides a preoccupation with individual psychology and its irrational aspects is evident….In
  his hands tragedy for the first time probed the inner recesses of the human soul and let passions spin the plot.

• It is said that he died in Macedonia after being attacked by the Molossian hounds of King Archelaus, and that his cenotaph near Piraeus was struck by lightning—signs of his
  unique powers, whether for good or ill (according to one modern scholar, his death might have been caused instead by the harsh Macedonian winter).

• [63] Euripides is also known for his use of irony.

• For others, psychological inconsistency is not a stumbling block to good drama: “Euripides is in pursuit of a larger insight: he aims to set forth the two modes, emotional
  and rational, with which human beings confront their own mortality.

• The identity of the trio is neatly underscored by a patriotic account of their roles during Greece’s great victory over Persia at the Battle of Salamis—Aeschylus fought there,
  Sophocles was just old enough to celebrate the victory in a boys’ chorus, and Euripides was born on the very day of the battle.

• “[66] For some critics, the lyrics often seem dislocated from the action, but the extent and significance of this is “a matter of scholarly debate”.

• “[47] The tension between reason and passion is symbolized by his characters’ relationship with the gods:[53] For example, Hecuba’s prayer is answered not by Zeus, nor by
  the law of reason, but by Menelaus, as if speaking for the old gods.

• [86] I would rather stand three times with a shield in battle than give birth once.

• […] One thing only, they say, competes in value with life, the possession of a heart blameless and good.

 

Works Cited

[‘The epithet “the most tragic of poets” was mastered[clarification needed] by Aristotle, probably in reference to a perceived preference for unhappy endings, but it has wider relevance: “For in his representation of human suffering Euripides pushes to
the limits of what an audience can stand; some of his scenes are almost unbearable.”—B. Knox,’Euripides’ in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p.
339
• ^ ‘The poet of the Greek enlightenment’ is taken from W. Nestle, Euripides, Stuttgart (1901); ‘Euripides the irrationalist’ is from E. Dodds, C.R 43 (1929), pp. 97–104
• ^ This summary of the transmission is adapted from a) Denys L.
Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction pp. xxxvii–xliv; b) L.P.E. Parker, Euripides: Alcestis, Oxford University Press (2007), Introduction pp. lvii–lxv; c) E.R. Dodds, Euripides: Bacchae, Oxford University Press (1960),
Introduction pp. li–lvi
• ^ παῦρον ⌊δὲ δὴγένος ἐν πολλαῖς
εὕροις ⌊ἂν ἴσως
οὐκ ἀπό⌊μουσον τὸ γυναικῶν.
καί φημι ⌊βροτῶν οἵτινές εἰσιν
πάμπαν ⌊ἄπειροι μηδ΄ ἐφύτευσαν
παῖ⌋δας͵ ⌊προφέρειν εἰς εὐτυχίαν
⌊τῶν γειναμένων.⌋
“Among many women, you
might find a small class who are not uneducated. And I tell you that those who have no experience of children and parenthood are better off than those who do.”—Medea lines 1087–91. (Half brackets enclose words not transmitted by the fragment but supplied
by the greater tradition (see Leiden Conventions). The word οὐκ supports a reading preferred by modern scholars (it is represented as κοὐκ in other sources)—Denys L.Page, Euripides: Medea, O.U.P. (reprint 1978), note 1087–89, p. 151)
• ^ i.e. lines
are split between speakers
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o ^
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o ^ Bernd Seidensticker, “Dithyramb, Comedy and Satyr-Play’, in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 50
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o ^ Medea 824 sqq.; Denys
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o ^ Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction p. xi
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o ^ Plutarch Vit.Dec.Orat. 851e, cited by Denys L. Page, Euripides: Medea, Oxford University Press (1976), Introduction pp. xxxix–xl
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o ^ “POxy Oxyrhynchus Online”. Papyrology.ox.ac.uk. 17 April 2005. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
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o ^ William Ritchie, The Authenticity of the Rhesus of Euripides, Cambridge University Press (1964)
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o ^ A.S. Owen, Euripides: Ion, Bristol Classical Press, Introduction pp. xl–xli
o ^ B. Knox,’Euripides’ in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek
Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 337
o ^ Justina Gregory, ‘Euripidean Tragedy’, in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 257
o ^ M. Platnauer,
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o ^ E.R.Dodds, Euripides: Bacchae, Oxford University Press (1960), Introduction p. xxxvi
o ^ John Gould, ‘Tragedy in performance’ in The Cambridge History of Classical
Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 281
o ^ A.S. Owen, Euripides: Ion, Bristol Classical Press (1990), Introduction p. 91
o ^ Justina Gregory, ‘Euripidean Tragedy’, in A Companion
to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), p. 258
o ^ B. Knox,’Euripides’ in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature, P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985),
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o ^ Moses Hadas, Ten Plays by Euripides, Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. xvi
o ^ Kovacs, David (1994). Euripides, Vol. I: Cyclops, Alcestis, Medea. Harvard University Press. p. 17.
o ^ Kovacs, David (1994). Euripides, Vol. I:
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o ^ E.B.Ceadel, ‘Resolved Feet in the Trimeters of Euripides’, Classical Quarterly xxxv (1941), pp. 66–89
o ^ William Ritchie, The Authenticity of the Rhesus of Euripides, Cambridge
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o ^ Justina Gregory, ‘Euripidean Tragedy’, in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, Justina Gregory (ed.), Blackwell Publishing Ltd (2005), pp. 254–58
o ^ Euripides (1995). Collard, C.; Cropp, M.J.; Lee, K.H. (eds.).
Selected Fragmentary Plays: Volume I. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 0-85668-619-0.
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