• [28] Although Henry’s marriage to Catherine has since been described as “unusually good”,[29] it is known that Henry took mistresses.

• [61] Early signs of a fall from grace included the king’s new mistress, the 28-year-old Jane Seymour, being moved into new quarters,[105] and Anne’s brother, George Boleyn,
  being refused the Order of the Garter, which was instead given to Nicholas Carew.

• [16] Catherine was therefore left in limbo for some time, culminating in Prince Henry’s rejection of the marriage as soon he was able, at the age of 14.

• Probably seeing the possibility of marrying Anne, the third was ultimately the most attractive possibility to the 34-year-old Henry,[62] and it soon became the king’s absorbing
  desire to annul his marriage to the now 40-year-old Catherine.

• Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid.

• [47] With the replacement of Julius by Pope Leo X, who was inclined to negotiate for peace with France, Henry signed his own treaty with Louis: his sister Mary would become
  Louis’ wife, having previously been pledged to the younger Charles, and peace was secured for eight years, a remarkably long time.

• Soon after his father’s burial on 10 May, Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine, leaving unresolved several issues concerning the papal dispensation
  and a missing part of the marriage portion.

• It was this argument Henry took to Pope Clement VII in 1527 in the hope of having his marriage to Catherine annulled, forgoing at least one less openly defiant line of attack.

• [12] Henry VII gave his second son few responsibilities even after the death of Arthur.

• This was followed by the Second Succession Act (the Act of Succession 1536), which declared Henry’s children by Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both
  Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne.

• [35] At the time of his death in June 1536, Parliament was considering the Second Succession Act, which could have allowed him to become king.

• Charles brought his realm into war with France in 1521; Henry offered to mediate, but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles.

• The day after Anne’s execution the 45-year-old Henry became engaged to Seymour, who had been one of the queen’s ladies-in-waiting.

• These options were legitimising Henry FitzRoy, which would need the involvement of the Pope and would be open to challenge; marrying off Mary, his daughter with Catherine,
  as soon as possible and hoping for a grandson to inherit directly, but Mary was considered unlikely to conceive before Henry’s death, or somehow rejecting Catherine and marrying someone else of child-bearing age.

• Despite the money from these sources, he was often on the verge of financial ruin due to personal extravagance as well as costly and largely unproductive wars, particularly
  with King Francis I of France, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, King James V of Scotland and the Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise.

• In the winter of 1532, Henry met with Francis I at Calais and enlisted the support of the French king for his new marriage.

• [117] In 1538, as part of the negotiation of a secret treaty by Cromwell with Charles V, a series of dynastic marriages were proposed: Mary would marry a son of the King of
  Portugal, Elizabeth marry one of the sons of the King of Hungary and the infant Edward marry one of the Emperor’s daughters.

• [44] His absence from the country, however, had prompted his brother-in-law James IV of Scotland to invade England at the behest of Louis.

• [108] Cranmer appears to have had difficulty finding grounds for an annulment and probably based it on the prior liaison between Henry and Anne’s sister Mary, which in canon
  law meant that Henry’s marriage to Anne was, like his first marriage, within a forbidden degree of affinity and therefore void.

• [118] However, when Charles and Francis made peace in January 1539, Henry became increasingly paranoid, perhaps as a result of receiving a constant list of threats to the
  kingdom (real or imaginary, minor or serious) supplied by Cromwell in his role as spymaster.

• [67][b] Martin Luther, on the other hand, had initially argued against the annulment, stating that Henry VIII could take a second wife in accordance with his teaching that
  the Bible allowed for polygamy but not divorce.

• [6] Not much is known about Henry’s early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king,[6] but it is known that he received a first-rate education
  from leading tutors.

• [114] The euphoria that had accompanied Edward’s birth became sorrow, but it was only over time that Henry came to long for his wife.

• [115] Measures were immediately put in place to find another wife for Henry, which, at the insistence of Cromwell and the Privy Council, were focused on the European continent.

• [128] The marriage was subsequently dissolved in July 1540, and Anne received the title of “The King’s Sister”, two houses, and a generous allowance.

• [101] Although the Boleyn family still held important positions on the Privy Council, Anne had many enemies, including the Duke of Suffolk.

• [69][71] After a short period in which Henry took government upon his own shoulders,[72] Thomas More took on the role of Lord Chancellor and chief minister.

• Henry is best known for his six marriages, and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled.

• As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine.

• [13] Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering his son Henry in marriage to the widowed Catherine.

• There has been speculation that Mary’s two children, Henry Carey and Catherine Carey, were fathered by Henry, but this has never been proved, and the king never acknowledged
  them as he did in the case of Henry FitzRoy.

• However, it was not long before Henry wished to annul the marriage so he could marry another.

• [41] Remarkably, Henry had secured the promised title of “Most Christian King of France” from Julius and possibly coronation by the Pope himself in Paris, if only Louis could
  be defeated.

• [28] The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to his eventual legitimisation.

• [60][a] It was in this context that Henry considered his three options for finding a dynastic successor and hence resolving what came to be described at court as the king’s
  “great matter”.

• [42] Henry with Emperor Charles V (right) and Pope Leo X (centre), c. 1520 On 30 June 1513, Henry invaded France, and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the
  Spurs – a relatively minor result, but one which was seized on by the English for propaganda purposes.

• A second annulment was now a real possibility, although it is commonly believed that it was Cromwell’s anti-Boleyn influence that led opponents to look for a way of having
  her executed.

• [83] With the Act of Succession 1533, Catherine’s daughter, Mary, was declared illegitimate; Henry’s marriage to Anne was declared legitimate; and Anne’s issue declared to
  be next in the line of succession.

• [120] Marriage to Anne of Cleves Portrait of Anne of Cleves by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1539 Having considered the matter, Cromwell suggested Anne, the 25-year-old sister
  of the Duke of Cleves, who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England, for the duke fell between Lutheranism and Catholicism.

• [17] Early reign Henry VII died on 21 April 1509, and the 17-year-old Henry succeeded him as king.

• [15][18] The new king maintained that it had been his father’s dying wish that he marry Catherine.

• [127] It was soon clear that Henry had fallen for the 17-year-old Catheri

• [69] This bias was perhaps the result of pressure from Emperor Charles V, Catherine’s nephew, but it is not clear how far this influenced either Campeggio or the Pope.

• [20] On 23 June 1509, Henry led the now 23-year-old Catherine from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey for their coronation, which took place the following day.

• [76] Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry, now 41, and Anne went through a secret wedding service.

• After Pope Julius II created the anti-French Holy League in October 1511,[37] Henry followed Ferdinand’s lead and brought England into the new League.

• [93] Neither Henry nor Cromwell sought at that stage to have the men executed; rather, they hoped that the two might change their minds and save themselves.

• [110] Marriage to Jane Seymour; domestic and foreign affairs Jane Seymour (left) became Henry’s third wife, pictured at right with Henry and the young Prince Edward, c. 1545,
  by an unknown artist.

• [38] The attack, however, following a formal declaration of war in April 1512, was not led by Henry personally[39] and was a considerable failure; Ferdinand used it simply
  to further his own ends, and it strained the Anglo-Spanish alliance.

• [26] On 1 January 1511, New Year’s Day, a son Henry was born.

• About four months later, Catherine again became pregnant.

• [102] Also opposed to Anne were supporters of reconciliation with Princess Mary (among them the former supporters of Catherine), who had reached maturity.

• [18] Two days after his coronation, Henry arrested his father’s two most unpopular ministers, Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley.

• [46] Among the dead was the Scottish king, thus ending Scotland’s brief involvement in the war.

• After less than two months of hearing evidence, Clement called the case back to Rome in July 1529, from which it was clear that it would never re-emerge.

• Charles defeated and captured Francis at Pavia and could dictate peace, but he believed he owed Henry nothing.

• [123] After seeing Holbein’s portrait, and urged on by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, the 49-year-old king agreed to wed Anne.

• [23] By contrast, Henry’s view of the House of York – potential rival claimants for the throne – was more moderate than his father’s had been.

• [65] It is not clear exactly when Henry changed his mind on the issue as he grew more intent on a second marriage.

• However, the child died seven weeks later.

• 1540), Catherine Howard, (m. 1540; d. 1542), Catherine Parr, (m. 1543); Issue Among others: Henry, Duke of Cornwall, Mary I, Henry FitzRoy, Duke of Richmond and Somerset (ill.),
  Elizabeth I, Edward VI; House: Tudor; Father: Henry VII of England; Mother: Elizabeth of York, (m. 1543); Religion: Roman Catholicism (1491–1534), Church of England (1534–1547) Early years Born on 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in
  Greenwich, Kent, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York.

• [124] The marriage took place in January 1540.

• The day after the ceremony, he was created Duke of York and a month or so later made Warden of the Scottish Marches.

• [19] Henry’s wedding to Catherine was kept low-key and was held at the friar’s church in Greenwich on 11 June 1509.

• [30] The most significant mistress for about three years, starting in 1516, was Elizabeth Blount.

• After the grief of losing their first child, the couple were pleased to have a boy and festivities were held,[27] including a two-day joust known as the Westminster Tournament.

• [99] Queen Anne was pregnant again, and she was aware of the consequences if she failed to give birth to a son.

• [74] A year later, Catherine was banished from court, and her rooms were given to Anne Boleyn.

• [7][8] In November 1501, Henry played a considerable part in the ceremonies surrounding his brother Arthur’s marriage to Catherine, the youngest child of King Ferdinand II
  of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile.

• [100] For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of this royal marriage.

• [50] Henry met the new French king, Francis, on 7 June 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Calais for a fortnight of lavish entertainment.

• [31] Opposition to Henry’s religious policies was at first quickly suppressed in England.

• Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason, however – More on the evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich, the Solicitor General, and both were executed
  in the summer of 1535.

• [48] Charles V, the nephew of Henry’s wife Catherine, inherited a large empire in Europe, becoming king of Spain in 1516 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1519.

 

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2. ^
“And if a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an unclean thing: he hath uncovered his brother’s nakedness; they shall be childless.”
3. ^ On 11 July 1533 Pope Clement VII ‘pronounced sentence against the king, declaring him excommunicated
unless he put away the woman he had taken to wife, and took back his Queen during the whole of October next.'[86] Clement died on 25 September 1534. On 30 August 1535 the new pope, Paul III, drew up a bull of excommunication which began ‘Eius qui
immobilis’.[87][88] G. R. Elton puts the date the bull was made official as November 1538.[89] On 17 December 1538 Pope Paul III issued a further bull which began ‘Cum redemptor noster’, renewing the execution of the bull of 30 August 1535, which
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Photo credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/44458147@N00/15424480096/’]